, http://sg.news.yahoo.com/dealing-with-the-dead-in-s%E2%80%99pore--a-gravedigger%E2%80%99s-story-20120729.html

How to chant mantras n benefit of chanting mantras

How to Chant Mantras & Benefits of Chanting Mantra Mantra is a Sanskrit word derived from two words, Man (Manan) and Tra (Trana). Trana means liberation from the worldly ties. Originally originated in the Vedic tradition of India, mantras later become an integral part of the Hindu traditions and later a practice followed within Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. Mantras are a powerful combination of words that is believed to reach the deity in the form of sound vibrations. Mantra can be used for self realization, freedom from worries, fulfilling desires, to bring success, peace and happiness. Chanting mantras is a good spiritual discipline and not a superstition. When mantras are chanted, an appealing effect is felt in the body. Also, the combined effect of sound vibrations can be observed on brain, or on EEG (Electro Encephala Graph). Thus it is called as Music Therapy or Mantra Therapy. There are various kinds of Mantras, out of which Tantrik Mantras and Vedic Mantras are more popular. Tantrik mantras are called as Beeja Mantras and Vedic Mantras are those which are followed under the Vedic system. How to Chant Mantras 1) The mind should be kept peacefully and should not be distracted. 2) Complete devotion and faith are necessary for chanting mantras. 3) Mantras should be chanted after taking bath, with absolute cleanliness 4) Quiet places are chosen for chanting mantras. 5) Sitting position is best suited for meditation as well as for chanting. 6) The best time is early morning. Even you can do on transition periods such as dawn to sunrise and twilight to sunset. 7) Some people use a rosary of 108 Rudraksha or tulsi (basil) or sandalwood beads for chanting mantras 8) Mantras can be chanted on a daily basis. 9) Mantras should not be used for negative purposes. 10) Veda mantras are to be chanted on the guidance from a guru. Benefits of Chanting Mantras Chanting of mantras repeatedly in rhythmic tone with ups and downs, create a melodious effect in the body. This effect can be defined as Neuro-linguistic (NLE) + Psycholinguistic effect (PLE). These effects are caused due to the production and spreading of medicinal chemicals in the brain, which give smoothening and curing effect in the body. Also, listening to mantras lowers blood pressure and normalizes heart beat rate, brain wave pattern, adrenalin level and the cholesterol level. Even the doctors advise the people under high tension to listen to music or mantras. Chanting or listening mantras has become an accepted formula like the yoga and Pranayam practices. Chanting mantras has gentle effect on nervous system and helps relax the muscles and also used to reduce stress. Mantras of Gods & Goddesses There are mantras, slokhas, stotras, and Vedic hymns for all gods and goddesses in Hindu religion. There are also different types of Mantras such as Gayatri Mantras, Ashtakams, Chalisas, Pancharatnams, Kavachams, Bhujangams, Ashtottarams (108 Names), and Sahasranamama (108 Names). Mantras of Gods Ganesha Mantras Shiva Mantras Vishnu Mantras Ayyappa Mantras Hanuman Mantras Krishna Mantras Murugan Mantras Narasimha Mantras Rama Stotras Sudarshana Mantras Surya Mantras Goddess Mantras Lakshmi Mantras Parvathi Mantras Saraswathi Mantras Devi Stotras Other Mantras Gayatri Mantras Navagraha Mantras Guru Mantras Suktams Vedic Hymns

18 level of hell

Answers.com > Wiki Answers > Categories > Religion & Spirituality > Buddhism > Are there 18 levels in hell? Are there 18 levels in hell? In: Buddhism [Edit categories] Answer:   Improve As per Abhidhamma (3rd Pitaka of Dhamma), there are 08 main hells. There are 16 'mini' Hells surrounding each of these 08 hells. There is a darkness Hell, a river like hell and a tree like Hell! So, (8x16)+3= 131 A little bit of corrections, my friends. As there are 16 mini hells [4 mini hells in each of 4 directions] surrounding each main hell, it is [8 x 16 = 128] mini hells. (remember that's only mini hells total) Adding them to the 8 main hells, the number becomes [8 + 128 = 136]. The structures or kind of tortures in those hells should not add up here because we are calculating number of hells; not type of hells. And yes, this is according to Buddhism. However, it's not from Abhidhamma Pitaka (The Profound Doctrine); it's from Devadūta-sūtra, Bālapaṇḍita-sūtra and Abhidharma-kośa. The Abhidharma-kośa is a book written by a Tibetan monk; and used by Mahayana Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. It is said that there are 16 main hells { then it's gonna be 144 or 272 hells total :( } The 8 hells (found in Majjhima Nikaya - 130th discourse): 1. Sañjīva (Hell of Retributive Justice) 2. Kālasūtra (Hell of Black Thread) 3. Saṅghāta (Hell of Crushing) 4. Raurava (Hell of Screaming) 5. Mahāraurava (Hell of Great Screaming) 6. Tapana (Hell of Burning) 7. Pratāpana (Hell of Great Burning) 8. Avīci (Great Hell of Ceaseless Torture and Sufferings) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Hot_Hells The 8 cold hells (found in Nirvāṇa-sūtra): 1. Hahava 2. Atata 3. Alala 4. Ababa 5. Utpalal (Blue Lotus) 6. Padma (Crimson Lotus) 7. Kumuda (Scarlet Lotus) 8. Pundarika (White Lotus) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eight_Cold_Hells The 8 cold hells (derived from some sources): 1. Arbuda (Chilblains) 2. Nirarbuda (Chilblains Bursting) 3. Aṭaṭa (Chattering Teeth) 4. Hahava (!!!) 5. Huhuva (!!!) 6. Utpala (Blue Lotus) 7. Padma (Crimson Lotus) 8. Mahāpadma (Large Crimson Lotus) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eight_Cold_Hells According to Islam, there are 7 layers of hell (according to the book Ihya Uloom Ed-Din p.4.431) 1. Jahannam 2. Sakher 3. Jai 4. Hotamah 5. Saierr 6. Jahim 7. Habiyah http://www.islam-watch.org/SyedKamranMirza/IslamicHell.htm Christianity doesn't describe hell in layers; instead they differentiate with levels of torture (3 levels, I think). There are some different concepts about hell. So, please read on. Jainism has 7 layers. 1. Ratna 2. Sharkara 3. Valuka 4. Panka 5. Dhuma 6. Tamaha 7. Mahatamaha You can read more in "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell" I do not guarantee about any accuracy though. And this is interesting, too... http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_Hell Some people are trying to find hell but since they do not want to be there, they try to find it in literature. There are lots of understanding and interpretation issues. I would suggest practising some meditation techniques that could enlighten your visions and see the hells right by your third eye. (PS. just for a tip, when you get that vision, do not always find hells under the ground, look also on the horizon too. Only then try to read in religious scriptures yourself; and please tell me, and others, which are true and which religion best describes reality.) -- First answer by Kushan. Last edit by Kyawthetlwin. Contributor trust: 0 [recommend contributor ]. Question popularity: 41 [recommend question]. [report abuse] Can you answer these Buddhism questions? When did the military take charge of Burma? Answer it! Why are there more Buddhists than Jews today? Answer it! Who is the prayer leader in Buddhism? Answer it! How do Buddhist get married? Answer it! What practices can you do for Buddhism? Answer it! Relevant answers: How do you do level 18 on this is the only level on this level it is not even necessary to press the red button. Make sure you have enough block space and then jump behind the gate or bar or pole or whatever you like to call it. The ground will... What level does poochyena evolve after level 18 Poochyena will continue to try to evolve until you let it evolve, unless it holds an Everstone. It will evolve into Mightyena whenever you want it to, if you do not choose to let it evolve at level... How many levels of hell are there There is meant to be seven levels of hell, one for each of the seven deadly sins. But if you are refering to Dantes circle there are nine, the last left for betrayal. What are the levels of hell Are their different levels of hell no one has come back to say...

Panda tea

First, we have the world's most expensive coffee, Kopi Luwak, made with civet's feces. And now, the world's most expensive tea is made with panda poo! This luxury brew is created by a Chinese entrepreneur An Yanshi who was a calligraphy teacher at Sichuan University. He had bought 11 tons of excrement from a panda breeding centre in Sichuan, China. He then used them to grow tea leaves which are selling at £50,000 (SGD99,000) per kilogram. Bamboo, similar to green tea, contains a cancer preventative. Yanshi claimed that since pandas have a very poor digestive system and only absorb about 30 per cent of what they eat, the rest would be used to fertilize the tea which will provide cancer-preventative effects. While Yanshi hopes to make money from the tea, he claimed that his main mission is to protect the environment and replace chemical fertilizers with animal faeces. According to Yanshi, panda poo is rich in nutrients and should be much better than chemical fertilizers. So far, there have been no takers for this unusual brew. STOMPer IUIU who came across the story online wrote: "This sounds like bullshit to me. "Why not just use the bamboo directly instead? "I doubt anyone would pay such a hefty sum to drink poo."

FBI Steve Jobs file

WASHINGTON: The US Federal Bureau of Investigation on Thursday released a 191-page file on Steve Jobs that paints an occasionally unflattering portrait of the late Apple founder. The report was compiled during a 1991 background investigation of Jobs by the FBI after former president George H.W. Bush recommended his appointment to the President's Export Council. It consists of interviews with co-workers, friends, family members and even neighbours of Jobs, who died on October 5 of pancreatic cancer at the age of 56. The names of the persons interviewed by the FBI have been redacted from the file released following a Freedom of Information Act request by The Wall Street Journal although their places of employment are frequently identified. The FBI also interviewed Jobs for the background check -- after first being told he would be unavailable for three weeks and could only spare an hour. Jobs told the FBI he had not used any illegal drugs during the past five years but had experimented with marijuana, hashish and LSD between 1970 and 1974 while in high school and college. The report notes that Jobs had been involved in several lawsuits as chief executive of Apple but had never been arrested and was not a member of the communist party. Jobs, who had left Apple at the time of the background check and was head of NeXT Computer, was described by some of those interviewed as "strongwilled, stubborn, hardworking and driven," the report said, even a "genius." "They further stated, however that Mr Jobs possesses integrity as long as he gets his way," the report said. "Several individuals questioned Mr Jobs' honesty stating Mr Jobs will twist the truth and distort reality in order to achieve his goals," it said. "Appointee is very truthful and straightforwards with people and usually says exactly what he is thinking," it added. The report also delved into Jobs's relationship with his former girlfriend and their daughter. "In the past, Mr Jobs was not supportive of (the mother of his child born out of wedlock) and their daughter: however, recently has become more supportive," it said. Jobs, in a recent authorised biography by Walter Isaacson, acknowledged both his drug use and that he had not initially been close to his daughter. One woman interviewed by the FBI said Job's personal life was "lacking due to his narcissism and shallowness" but he has "far reaching vision." "She also stated that his success at Apple... also caused him at times to lose sight of honesty and integrity and even caused him to distort the truth at times to get his way," the report said. Another person said Jobs "had undergone a change in philosophy by participating in eastern and/or Indian mysticism and religion. "This change apparently influenced the Appointee's personal life for the better," the FBI said. "The Appointee lives more of a spartan-like and at times even monastic existence." While some of those interviewed had reservations about Jobs's character, all of them said they would recommend him for a "position of trust and confidence with the US government." Along with the background check file, the FBI released the report of its investigation into a February 1985 bomb threat against Apple in which an unidentified caller demanded $1 million. No bombs was ever found and no money changed hands.

Alternative reality on the Chinese economy

HONG KONG - China's official data isn't always helpful. But the earnings statements of foreign multinationals give a good alternative reality check on the Chinese economy. Leaf through recent numbers from those with big businesses in the People's Republic, such as Yum Brands, Siemens or Moet Hennessy-Louis Vuitton, and three trends emerge. Consumer companies tell a tale of rising prices. Yum, the parent group of Kentucky Fried Chicken, is just one struggling to pass through rising costs to Chinese customers. Same-store sales rose by 21 per cent in the fourth quarter, but food, wages and rent hikes helped drag down margins to 16 per cent from 18 per cent a year earlier. Yum plans to raise prices again in 2012, after a small 2 per cent increase in September. So much for inflation being under control. Heavy industrials, meanwhile, convey slowing investment. Siemens, which supplies machinery to manufacturers, reported a 16 per cent decline in new Chinese orders in the last quarter of 2012, measured year on year. Power company Eaton Corp singled out China as one factor behind its own missed sales targets. Foreign suppliers feel the pinch early when manufacturers start running down stocks instead of increasing production. Then there are the luxury firms. For them life is great, showing that even if the economy is slowing, the rich and powerful are doing fine. That's bad for China's rising wealth gap and its fight against corruption, both of which fuel social tensions that threaten steady growth. Richemont, which owns Cartier, and LVMH both enthused about Chinese demand in their quarterly statements. They are also the top brands for Chinese millionaires buying gifts, according to the Hurun report. It's not all bleak. Richemont's sales in Europe, which rose 16 per cent year on year, were driven in part by Chinese tourists. They bought $7.2 billion of luxury goods abroad during the lunar New Year break, according to the World Luxury Association. Those don't officially count as imports - yet if they did, they would almost balance the estimated $10 billion trade surplus for January. It's some comfort that China is consuming, even if not always at home. Context news Yum Brands, the U.S. parent of Kentucky Fried Chicken, said on Feb 6 that sales at established restaurants in China grew by 21 per cent during the fourth quarter of 2012, measured year on year. Operating profits grew 15 per cent in China over the same period, after Yum increased prices by 2 per cent in September. Siemens, the German engineering group, reported a 16 per cent decline in new Chinese orders in the last three months of 2012, and said it had witnessed a "marked slowdown in short cycle businesses" in China, particularly in industrial automation. 3M, the U.S. industrials group, said it anticipates continued below-trend growth in China in the first half of 2012. Another global manufacturer, Eaton Corp, singled out China as one of several factors that caused it to miss sales targets for the year. Richemont, the maker of Cartier jewellery and IWC watches, said in January that sales in Europe rose 16 per cent year on year in the fourth quarter of 2012, driven by Chinese tourists purchasing the group's goods whilst abroad. Chinese consumers bought $7.2 billion luxury goods abroad during the lunar New Year festival, up 29 per cent from the same period a year earlier, according to World Luxury Association. That accounted for a third of global luxury goods sales during that period, or 62 per cent of the sales in Europe and 28 per cent of the sales in North America.

Biggest baby in China

7kg baby boy biggest ever born in China YourHealth, AsiaOne | Wed, Feb 08, 2012 Weighing in at a whopping 7.04kg, Dragon baby Chun Chun may be the heaviest infant ever born in China. The baby boy was delivered on Saturday in a local hospital in Xinxiang city, Henan province. The Daily Mail reported that both mother and child are in good health. The happy father expressed delight in welcoming a Dragon baby to local television channel Xinxiang Television. The infant's arrival auspiciously fell a day after the start of spring for the Year of the Dragon. According to the Wan Nian Li, or Ten Thousand Years Calendar, only those born after Feb 4 can be considered Dragon babies. Han Jingang, father of Chun Chun, added that his wife showed no signs that she would give birth to such a big and fat son. She behaved no differently from other pregnant women, eating and drinking normally. However, the 29-year-old proud mother, Wang Yujuan, had a suspicion that she was carrying something special. She said she was more clumsy than when she had been pregnant with her previous child, and her belly was bigger than expected. But she never thought her baby would tip the scales at 7kg, having previously guessed the baby would weigh a maximum of 5kg. The couple's first child, now six years old, weighed a normal 4kg at birth. Chun Chun, whom doctors say weighs twice as heavy as a normal baby, is a tad heavier than three other babies who previously jointly held the record. Born between 2008 and 2010, the three babies weighed exactly 7kg. According to the Guinness World Records, the heaviest baby ever born weighed 10.8kg. However, the Ohio-born baby boy died 11 hours after birth. Also read: 6kg baby the heaviest newborn born in Singapore yamadak@sph.com.sg

'Glowing gem' con

  Foreigners caught red-headed in 'glowing' gem con By Zaihan Mohamed Yusof The New Paper | Wed, Feb 08, 2012 Singaporean Ravan Rai thought what he was seeing was a miracle. The tiny stone, known as a naga mani or cobra pearl, was glowing in the dark room. Just minutes ago, the amber-coloured stone, kept in a rectangular wooden box, looked nothing out of the ordinary. But when placed on a beach towel, it began to manifest its "mystical powers" - the intensity of its glow gradually increasing as the two foreigners began chanting louder in Hindi. That was the power of the naga mani, said one of two Indian nationals who had given Mr Rai a demonstration of the gem's mystical powers on Jan 19. Said Mr Rai, 29, at his shop in Pearl's Centre in Chinatown: "I was in awe because many believe that this rare stone can ward off evil and shower its owner with wealth. "I was almost convinced and willing to pay handsomely for the naga mani." But Mr Rai, who sells religious amulets at his shop, Phra Pirab Occult Specialist, refused to make a purchase that day because he believes Tuesdays are inauspicious days for major transactions. High price The men, from Karnataka in southern India, had allegedly demanded 500,000 rupees (about $12,600) for the gem. They were recommended by Mr Rai's father, who had met them at a Buddhist temple in Geylang Lorong 11. Said Mr Rai: "The price seemed like a lot, but I thought it was small compared to the benefits I stood to gain." He told the pair to return the next evening. But while excited at the prospect of owning the naga mani, he also had his doubts. So that night, Mr Rai went online to do some research. He learnt that many naga mani scams had taken place in India over the last five years. In one YouTube video, he saw a box where the naga mani stone was kept, and it was remarkably similar to the one the two men had. The next day, the two foreigners returned to the shop as agreed. But this time, Mr Rai had three friends present to witness the demonstration. Like before, the foreigners set conditions before they displayed the stone. The room had to be kept dark and quiet before the chanting began. No one was allowed to touch the stone in case he was hurt by the "energy" within the naga mani. The Singaporeans were also prevented from sitting near two edges of the beach towel "reserved" for the Indian nationals. "After a 15-minute demonstration, I had enough," said Mr Rai. "When the lights came on, I ordered the two men to move away from the towel." Their game was up. Cornered, the two men lost their confidence, said Mr Surinder Singh, one of Mr Rai's friends. Mr Singh, 33, said: "They were dumbfounded when Rai lifted the towel." Battery pack Hidden beneath the towel was a battery pack sealed with electrical tape. Attached to the pack was a dimmer. A well-hidden socket was stitched into the seam of the towel with a trail of wires leading to the centre of the towel where the naga mani had been placed. Directly below it was a tiny bulb partially hidden from view. While one of the fraudsters was chanting, the other skilfully operated the dimmer in the dark. The pair gave the impression that the stone was responding to their special prayers, said Mr Singh. He added: "Previously, they were pally with us, calling us 'brothers' and telling us we were doing the right thing. One of them even said he had special oil to cure my hair loss. "I was disappointed because Rai could have lost a huge sum of money over something worthless." Mr Rai was furious that he came so close to being cheated. He said: "I threatened to call the police. I later learnt that the stone was made of synthetic fibre worth just $2. "They begged us not to (call the police). One of them even got on his knees and touched my feet, begging for forgiveness." Mr Rai demanded to see their passports. He wanted answers. Who was their mastermind? How many have already been cheated the same way? Using a mobile phone, one of Mr Rai's friends recorded the scene as the men were questioned. In the meantime, Mr Rai made photocopies of their passports. The foreigners claimed they were sent to Singapore by a syndicate. If they did not agree to go along with the con job, their families would be harmed, they said. One man even produced photographs of his family to show the Singaporeans. Mr Singh, convinced that it was all another "show", encouraged Mr Rai to call the cops immediately. Mr Rai said: "I had to think hard. What if they were telling the truth for once? I didn't want to be responsible for any harm to their families in India." After two hours, Mr Rai agreed to let them go. But not after giving them a taste of their own medicine. Mr Rai cut off a lock of hair from both men's heads and threatened that evil spirits would haunt them if they continued to cheat honest people. The pair then left in a hurry. Mr Rai kept the rigged towel and worthless stone in his shop to remind himself not to fall for a scam. He did not lodge a police report, but The New Paper advised him to do so. Said Mr Rai: "I learnt a valuable lesson that night. Never be too eager to believe in the supernatural to improve one's quality of life. You can attain your own wealth simply by believing in yourself." This article was first published in The New Paper.

Grave documentation

Grave documentation nearly complete The New Paper | Mon, Feb 06, 2012 AN EXERCISE to document some 5,000 graves at Bukit Brown Cemetery, where a controversial road is slated to cut through, is almost complete. And the Land Transport Authority (LTA) will "use the findings from the documentation exercise to fine-tune the road alignment so as to reduce the impact on the graves", said Mr Tan Chuan-Jin, Minister of State for National Development and Manpower in a Facebook post yesterday. "Some adjustments are already being made," said Mr Tan, after visiting the cemetery yesterday morning. He met anthropologist Hui Yew-Foong and his team who have been documenting the graves that could potentially be affected by the new road. They started work on Dec 1. Last year, the Urban Redevelopment Authority announced that Bukit Brown would be needed for future housing. And the LTA revealed plans to construct a dual four-lane carriageway through Bukit Brown by next year to ease congestion on Lornie Road. The road will affect about 5,000 of more than 100,000 graves there. Noting the "heritage value" of Bukit Brown cemetery - whose redevelopment plans have upset many -Mr Tan said "tensions over development and environment-history-heritage will become more acute". But he revealed the area could yield 15,000 homes for some 50,000 residents - "roughly 40 per cent the number of homes in Toa Payoh town". He stressed: "These are homes for many many Singaporeans." Going forward, Mr Tan said: "Let's see how we can develop Bukit Brown in the interim, to make it more accessible to visitors, even as we maintain its rustic charm." This article was first published in The New Paper.

JERUSALEM - A sleepy snake came to a rather untimely end after having its head half chewed off by a fearless toddler in an Arab town in northern Israel, the child’s family told AFP on Friday. Thirteen-month-old Imad Aleeyan, who has six teeth, was found chewing on the head of the 30-centimetre snake by his mother, who alerted the neighbourhood with her screams. “I was making his milk and I looked over and saw he had a snake in his mouth,” said his mother, Ghadir Aleeyan who lives in the town of Shefa’Amr, 15 kilometres (9 miles) east of the port city of Haifa. “I started to scream. I couldn’t believe my eyes,” she told AFP. “I nearly died of fright.” Her screams brought the rest of the family – and the neighbourhood – running. “We rushed in and found the baby with a snake in his mouth, chewing it. It was really scary, just horrible,” the boy’s aunt, Yasmin Shahin, said. A neighbour who had rushed to see what was going on yanked the half-dead reptile out of the boys mouth and killed it, she said. “When he pulled it out, Imad started crying,” she said, describing the snake’s head as “very badly chewed” when it emerged from the boys mouth. They immediately checked the child for any bite marks but found none, with doctors at Rambam hospital in Haifa confirming he was unharmed. “Doctors at the hospital told us the snake was really poisonous but that we were very lucky because they release less venom in the winter,” she said. But Dr Boaz Shacham, an expert on amphibians and reptiles, told AFP that from looking at images of the smashed-up serpent online, it appeared to be a coin-marked snake (hemorrhois nummifer), a non-venomous species which resembles a viper. Such snakes grow up to 1.3 metres in length, he said suggesting it was a “very young” specimen. “It probably didn’t bite the child because of the cold,” said Shacham who is the head of the herpetology collection at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Kodak files for bankruptcy

  Kodak files for bankruptcy, secures $950 million lifeline AsiaOne | Thu, Jan 19, 2012 Eastman Kodak Co, which invented the hand-held camera and helped bring the world the first pictures from the moon, has filed for bankruptcy protection, capping a prolonged plunge for one of America's best-known companies. The more than 130-year-old photographic film pioneer, which had tried to restructure to become a seller of consumer products like cameras, said it had also obtained a $950 million, 18-month credit facility from Citigroup to keep it going. The loan and bankruptcy protection from U.S. trade creditors may give Kodak the time it needs to find buyers for some of its 1,100 digital patents, the key to its remaining value, and to reshape its business while continuing to pay its 17,000 workers. "The board of directors and the entire senior management team unanimously believe that this is a necessary step and the right thing to do for the future of Kodak," Chairman and Chief Executive Antonio Perez said in a statement. "Now we must complete the transformation by further addressing our cost structure and effectively monetizing non-core intellectual-property assets. We look forward to working with our stakeholders to emerge a lean, world-class, digital imaging and materials science company," he added. At end September, the group had total assets of $5.1 billion and liabilities of $6.75 billion. Kodak said it and its U.S. subsidiaries had filed for Chapter 11 business reorganization in the U.S. Bankruptcy Court for the Southern District of New York. Non-U.S. subsidiaries were not covered by the filing and would continue to honor all obligations to their suppliers, it added. A FALLEN ICON Kodak once dominated its industry and its film was the subject of a popular Paul Simon song, but it failed to embrace more modern technologies quickly enough, such as the digital camera -- ironically, a product it even invented. Its downfall hit its Rust Belt hometown of Rochester, New York, with employment there falling to about 7,000 from more than 60,000 in Kodak's heyday. Its market value has sunk to below $150 million from $31 billion 15 years ago. In recent years, Chief Executive Perez has steered Kodak's focus more toward consumer and commercial printers. But that failed to restore annual profitability, something Kodak has not seen since 2007, or arrest a cash drain that has made it difficult for Kodak to meet its substantial pension and other benefits obligations to its workers and retirees. Perez said bankruptcy protection would enable Kodak to continue to work to maximize the value of its technology assets, such as digital-imaging patents it says are used in virtually every modern digital camera, smartphone and tablet. The company has also built up patented printing technology. Kodak said it was being advised by investment bank Lazard Ltd, which has been helping Kodak look for a buyer for its digital patents. Other advisers included business-turnaround specialist FTI Consulting Inc, whose vice chairman, Dominic DiNapoli, would serve as chief restructuring officer for Kodak, supporting existing management. In the last few years, Kodak has used extensive litigation with rivals such as Apple Inc, BlackBerry maker Research in Motion Ltd and Taiwan's HTC Corp over those patents as a means to try to generate revenue. Those patents may now be sold through the bankruptcy process. WALKING ON THE MOON George Eastman, a high school dropout from upstate New York, founded Kodak in 1880, and began to make photographic plates. To get his business going, he splurged on a second-hand engine for $125. Within eight years, the Kodak name had been trademarked, and the company had introduced the hand-held camera as well as roll-up film, where it became the dominant producer. Eastman also introduced the "Wage Dividend" in which the company would pay bonuses to employees based on results. Nearly a century after Kodak's founding, the astronaut Neil Armstrong used a Kodak camera the size of a shoebox to take pictures as he became in 1969 the first man to walk on the moon. Those pictures arguably had more viewers than the 80 films that have won Best Picture Oscars and were shot on Kodak film. Six years after Armstrong's walk, and not long after Simon told his mama not to take his Kodachrome away, Kodak invented the digital camera. The size of a toaster, it was too big for the pockets of amateur photographers, whose pockets now are stuffed with digital offerings from the likes of Canon, Casio and Nikon. But rather than develop the digital camera, Kodak put it on the back-burner and spent years watching rivals take market share that it would never reclaim. In 1994, Kodak spun off a chemicals business, Eastman Chemical Co, which proved to be more successful. Kodak's final downfall in the eyes of investors began in September when it unexpectedly withdrew $160 million from a credit line, raising worries of a cash shortage. It ended September with $862 million of cash. PENSIONS IN FOCUS In its bankruptcy, Kodak could try to restructure its debts, or perhaps sell all or some of its assets, including the patent portfolio and various businesses. It is unclear how Kodak will address its pension obligations, many of which were built up decades ago when U.S. manufacturers offered more generous retirement and medical benefits than they do now. Many retirees hail from Britain where Kodak has been manufacturing since 1891. The company had promised to inject $800 million over the next decade into its UK pension fund. It now remains unclear how that country's pension regulator might seek to preserve some or all of the company's obligations to British pensioners.

Preparing for death while still healty

  Preparing for death while still healthy The Yomiuri Shimbun/Asia News Network | Sun, Jan 15, 2012 Activities to prepare for the final stage of life, including having photos taken to leave behind, writing down final thoughts and wishes in a special notebook, and attending workshops on how to write a will, are enjoying a quiet boom. Experts say that behind the recent rise in popularity of these activities that take a candid approach to death is the emotional impact of the March 11 Great East Japan Earthquake, in addition to uncertainty over the future, including life after retirement. "Please smile. That's good," a female photographer said while taking photos of participants of a session held at a hotel in the city of Tachikawa, western Tokyo, in late November. The photos will be used for portraits after their death. A total of 38 people in their 40s to 80s attended the session, including a couple who celebrated their golden anniversary and a woman in a hula dancing outfit. Before having their photos taken, they were done up by a makeup artist according to their request. A 50-year-old self-employed women from the city of Hachioji, western Tokyo, who took part in the session, said her mother-in-law, in her 80s, fractured her leg after falling from a bicycle, and was hospitalized for three months. After that, the mother continued rehabilitation, but became more and more housebound despite the enjoyment she used to take in getting out of the house. In March 2011, the woman's mother, in her 70s, began to show symptoms associated with dementia. After medical examinations, she was diagnosed with a hematoma that formed after a blood vessel ruptured between the brain and its outer lining. An operation was successful, but there were concerns about the lingering effects of her condition. The Hachioji woman has seen one close relation after another suffer from a serious injury or disease. The March 11 quake and tsunami took the lives of many people in one blow. As to why she participated in the photo session, she said: "So far, death has not been part of my daily life. But now I've decided to face it head on. I'm not sure for what occasion a portrait of me would be needed after I die, but I wanted to leave one that depicted an expression that I like." In addition to having her portrait made, the Hachioji resident bought a "last notebook" in summer 2011 and began thinking about what messages she would like to leave her family with. "As I gradually sort out my feelings, I'll fill in the notebook little by little," she said. A last notebook is a book in which one writes down final wishes, such as whether to disclose the nature of an ailment, feelings about life-sustaining treatment, and desires for a funeral ceremony. The contents of the notebook are not legally binding, but a workshop on how to use them has been gaining popularity nationwide, as it is a convenient way for people to record such messages. According to the publisher of a free paper in Tokyo that organized the photo session--its first session was held in May 2011--there were many requests to hold an additional session. One of the staff members said: "There are plenty of people who said they had difficulty finding a photo of close relatives after they died to use as portraits. I assume the recent boom is a result of the fact that an increasing number of people don't want to cause their families unnecessary trouble after their deaths." Tour does spas and wills In another move to help people prepare for the last stage of life, an overnight tour at a spa resort includes a workshop on how to make a proper will. Press Sari-Sari Corp., a publishing company in the city of Osaka, has organized four such tours since 2009, charging 63,000 yen and 126,000 yen for one or two nights, respectively. Despite the high prices, 20 people have taken the tours, in which experts, such as administrative scriveners, advised them on how to make a legally valid will. About half of the tour participants were in their 50s to 60s. One woman in her 30s said: "My child is still small, but this is a time when there is no telling what will happen. I want to do what I can do now," she said. Press Sari-Sari President Shuku Fukukawa explained the purpose of the tour: "The tour is not an extension of our daily lives, like a seminar in a city building. It is an opportunity to take a deep look at oneself in an unconventional atmosphere." The company plans to organize an overnight tour in spring 2012 for under 30,000 yen to make it easier for people to participate. Mayumi Nakazawa, a nonfiction writer who wrote "Ohitorisama no Shukatsu" (Preparation for the last stage of life for single women), believes the earthquake had a significant impact on people's concerns for the future, in addition to life after retirement, which has lead to a boom in such activities nationwide. "These activities are only an entrance to the last stage of life," she said. "They give people an opportunity to figure out what they would like to do and still need to do in order to achieve a positive outlook on life."

US Marines urinated on corpses

WASHINGTON: All four US Marines seen in an online video urinating on the corpses of militants in Afghanistan have been identified and two of them have been questioned, American military officials said on Friday. The official said the two men "have been questioned" by the Naval Criminal Investigative Service over the disturbing footage but are "not in custody." The official, who asked not to be named because of the ongoing probe, confirmed the Marines seen in the graphic footage are from a sniper unit in the 3rd Battalion, 2nd Marines based at Camp Lejeune in North Carolina, and that the two men questioned are both on active duty. Tracking down the other two Marines took longer, apparently because they had been transferred from Camp Lejeune, said the official. But the US military confirmed all four men have now been identified. The 3rd Battalion 2nd Marines was deployed in southwestern Afghanistan's Helmand province from March to September last year, and the video "potentially" was shot during that period, the official said. The online video showed four US troops urinating on three bloodied corpses, and one of the men, apparently aware he was being filmed, saying: "Have a great day, buddy," referring to one of the dead. The footage has angered Afghan President Hamid Karzai and embarrassed the Pentagon, with US Defence Secretary Leon Panetta and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton condemning the acts as deplorable and vowing that the culprits would be found and punished. The soldiers in the video could face a court-martial for violating the Uniform Code of Military Justice as well as the Geneva Conventions, which provide that the remains of enemy fighters be treated with dignity. Investigators will also be seeking to identify and question others who might have been involved with the graphic acts, including the person who filmed the scene, who was most likely a fellow serviceman, another US military official said. He said military authorities will also seek to question the managers of the units involved, and that if command flaws are determined to have encouraged or led to the improper behaviour of the troops, then those commanders will be punished.

Mediation found to increase brain size

Meditation found to increase brain size Mental calisthenics bulk up some layers By William J. Cromie Harvard News Office Thursday, February 2, 2006 Kris Snibbe/Harvard News Office Sara Lazar (center) talks to research assistant Michael Treadway and technologist Shruthi Chakrapami about the results of experiments showing that meditation can increase brain size. People who meditate grow bigger brains than those who don’t. Researchers at Harvard, Yale, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have found the first evidence that meditation can alter the physical structure of our brains. Brain scans they conducted reveal that experienced meditators boasted increased thickness in parts of the brain that deal with attention and processing sensory input. In one area of gray matter, the thickening turns out to be more pronounced in older than in younger people. That’s intriguing because those sections of the human cortex, or thinking cap, normally get thinner as we age. “Our data suggest that meditation practice can promote cortical plasticity in adults in areas important for cognitive and emotional processing and well-being,” says Sara Lazar, leader of the study and a psychologist at Harvard Medical School. “These findings are consistent with other studies that demonstrated increased thickness of music areas in the brains of musicians, and visual and motor areas in the brains of jugglers. In other words, the structure of an adult brain can change in response to repeated practice.” The researchers compared brain scans of 20 experienced meditators with those of 15 nonmeditators. Four of the former taught meditation or yoga, but they were not monks living in seclusion. The rest worked in careers such as law, health care, and journalism. All the participants were white. During scanning, the meditators meditated; the others just relaxed and thought about whatever they wanted. Meditators did Buddhist “insight meditation,” which focuses on whatever is there, like noise or body sensations. It doesn’t involve “om,” other mantras, or chanting. “The goal is to pay attention to sensory experience, rather than to your thoughts about the sensory experience,” Lazar explains. “For example, if you suddenly hear a noise, you just listen to it rather than thinking about it. If your leg falls asleep, you just notice the physical sensations. If nothing is there, you pay attention to your breathing.” Successful meditators get used to not thinking or elaborating things in their mind. Study participants meditated an average of about 40 minutes a day. Some had been doing it for only a year, others for decades. Depth of the meditation was measured by the slowing of breathing rates. Those most deeply involved in the meditation showed the greatest changes in brain structure. “This strongly suggests,” Lazar concludes, “that the differences in brain structure were caused by the meditation, rather than that differences in brain thickness got them into meditation in the first place.” Lazar took up meditation about 10 years ago and now practices insight meditation about three times a week. At first she was not sure it would work. But “I have definitely experienced beneficial changes,” she says. “It reduces stress [and] increases my clarity of thought and my tolerance for staying focused in difficult situations.” Controlling random thoughts Insight meditation can be practiced anytime, anywhere. “People who do it quickly realize that much of what goes on in their heads involves random thoughts that often have little substance,” Lazar comments. “The goal is not so much to ‘empty’ your head, but to not get caught up in random thoughts that pop into consciousness.” She uses this example: Facing an important deadline, people tend to worry about what will happen if they miss it, or if the end product will be good enough to suit the boss. You can drive yourself crazy with unproductive “what if” worry. “If, instead, you focus on the present moment, on what needs to be done and what is happening right now, then much of the feeling of stress goes away,” Lazar says. “Feelings become less obstructive and more motivational.” The increased thickness of gray matter is not very much, 4 to 8 thousandths of an inch. “These increases are proportional to the time a person has been meditating during their lives,” Lazar notes. “This suggests that the thickness differences are acquired through extensive practice and not simply due to differences between meditators and nonmeditators.” As small as they are, you can bet those differences are going to lead to lots more studies to find out just what is going on and how meditation might better be used to improve health and well-being, and even slow aging. More basic questions need to be answered. What causes the increased thickness? Does meditation produce more connections between brain cells, or more blood vessels? How does increased brain thickness influence daily behavior? Does it promote increased communication between intellectual and emotional areas of the brain? To get answers, larger studies are planned at Massachusetts General Hospital, the Harvard-affiliated facility where Lazar is a research scientist and where these first studies were done. That work included only 20 meditators and their brains were scanned only once. “The results were very encouraging,” Lazar remarks. “But further research needs to be done using a larger number of people and testing them multiple times. We also need to examine their brains both before and after learning to meditate. Our group is currently planning to do this. Eventually, such research should reveal more about the function of the thickening; that is, how it affects emotions and knowing in terms of both awareness and judgment.” Slowing aging? Since this type of meditation counteracts the natural thinning of the thinking surface of the brain, could it play a role in slowing – even reversing – aging? That could really be mind-boggling in the most positive sense. Lazar is cautious in her answer. “Our data suggest that one small bit of brain appears to have a slower rate of cortical thinning, so meditation may help slow some aspects of cognitive aging,” she agrees. “But it’s important to remember that monks and yogis suffer from the same ailments as the rest of us. They get old and die, too. However, they do claim to enjoy an increased capacity for attention and memory.”

Aghori: Human-Flesh Eating Monks

Aghori: Human-Flesh Eating Monks AUGUST 26, 2009 9:26 PM JFRATER 69 COMMENTS The Aghoris are members of a Hindu sect who worship Shiva (a major Hindu god and one aspect of Trimurti – the Hindu trinity), whom they see as the supreme god. Because they believe that Shiva created everything they consider nothing to be bad. For this reason they engage in a variety of sexual practices (for example they perform a secret Tantric ritual involving sex with a lower caste, menstruating woman during which the Aghori becomes Shiva and his partner Shiva’s female energy), they drink alcohol, take drugs, and eat meat. Nothing is considered taboo. But the thing that makes their ancient traditions bizarre is that they are also practicing cannibals and their temples are cremation grounds. Aghori Practices An aghori lives in the cremation ground and is able to support himself there – his clothing comes from the dead, his firewood comes from the funeral pyres, and food from the river. When a person is cremated, an aghori will coat himself in the ashes of the body and meditate on the dead. Aghoris survive by begging with a bowl made from a human skull. The most shocking aspect of the Aghori life is their cannibalism. Dead bodies that are found floating in the river are gathered up and meditated on. The limbs are then removed by the Aghori and eaten raw. The corpses, which may be either pulled from a river (including the Ganges) or obtained from cremation grounds, are consumed both raw and cooked on open flame, as the Aghoris believe that what others consider a “dead man” is, in fact, nothing but a natural matter devoid of the life force it once contained. Therefore while for ordinary folks cannibalism may be seen as primitive, barbaric as well as unclean, for aghori’s it’s being both resourceful and subverting the common stereotypes placed on such taboos into a spiritual ascertainment that indeed nothing is profane nor separate from God, who is hailed to be all and in all. In fact, the Aghoris see it as a scientific approach in trying to discover how matter converts from one form to another. There are many aghoris walking the streets of northern India with their skull cups. These aghoris eat anything, including rotten food, food from the dumps, animal feces, animal urine, etc. They regularly perform rituals to attain the highest level in enlightenment. Many aghoris walk around completely naked. An American Aghori A typical American kid from a typical if affluent family, Gary Stevenson’s life first veered off the normal path when he was stricken with polio as a child. A troubled youth and rebellious adolescence coincided with the Age of Aquarius and Gary set off on a spiritual path that took him to San Francisco, Hawaii, and finally into India and Nepal in an ever-deeper slide into the extreme. Along the way he shed his identity, legally changing his name to Giridas Rama Sitanatha as he sought a magical path to immortality and enlightenment. Eventually, he turned to Aghor and its dark tantric rites. As he studied and excelled at his new religion, his guru christened him “Kapal Nath,” and he became lost in a lifestyle of grave robbing and cannibalizing the bodies to consume the Shakti (life energy) of the dead. [Source] More Information If you are interested in watching another fascinating documentary on the Aghoris, you can watch an excellent one here in full. If you want to watch an extremely gruesome video of the aghoris, you can do that here. Be warned, however, it contains video footage of cannibalism. The aghori featured on the Listverse Another 10 Bizarre Traditions.

Magic (paranormal )

For related ideas, see Magic (disambiguation). "Magia" redirects here. For other uses, see Magia (disambiguation). "Magical" redirects here. For the song, see Magical (song). It has been suggested that Magician (paranormal) be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since November 2011. "Circe Offering the Cup to Ulysses" by John William Waterhouse Magic is the art of manipulating aspects of reality either by supernatural means or through knowledge of occult laws unknown to science.[1] It is in contrast to science, in that science does not accept anything not subject to either direct or indirect observation, and subject to logical analysis, whereas practitioners of magic claim it is an inexplicable force beyond logic. Magic has been practiced in all cultures, and utilizes ways of understanding, experiencing and influencing the world somewhat akin to those offered by religion, though it is sometimes regarded as more focused on achieving results than religious worship.[2] Magic is often viewed with suspicion by the wider community, and is commonly practised in isolation and secrecy.[3] Modern Western magicians generally state magic's primary purpose to be personal spiritual growth.[4] Modern perspectives on the theory of magic broadly follow two views, which also correspond closely to ancient views.[citation needed] The first sees magic as a result of a universal sympathy within the universe, where if something is done here a result happens somewhere else. The other view sees magic as a collaboration with spirits who cause the effect.[5] Contents  [hide]  1 Etymology 2 Common features of magical practice 2.1 Rituals 2.2 Magical symbols 2.2.1 The Principle of Similarity 2.2.2 The Principle of Contagion 2.3 Magical language 2.4 Magicians 2.5 Witchcraft 3 Theories of magic 3.1 Anthropological and psychological origins 3.1.1 Definitions of relevant terminology 3.1.2 Magical thinking 3.1.3 Psychological theories of magic 3.1.4 Intellectualist perspectives 3.2 Theories on the relationship of magic to religion 3.2.1 Marcel Mauss 3.2.2 Tambiah 3.2.3 Bronisław Malinowski 3.2.4 Robin Horton 4 History 4.1 Ancient Egypt 4.2 Mesopotamia 4.3 Classical antiquity 4.4 Middle Ages 4.5 Renaissance 4.6 Baroque 4.7 Romanticism 5 Magic in various cultural contexts 5.1 Animism and folk religion 5.1.1 Native American medicine 5.2 Magic in Hinduism 5.3 Western magic 5.3.1 Theories of adherents 5.4 Magic and monotheism 5.4.1 In Judaism 5.4.2 In Christianity 5.4.3 In Islam 6 Varieties of magical practice 6.1 Magical traditions 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Bibliography 10 External links [edit]Etymology Through late 14th century Old French magique, the word "magic" derives via Latin magicus from the Greek adjective magikos (μαγικός) used in reference to the "magical" arts of the Magicians (Greek: magoi, singular mágos, μάγος); the Zoroastrian astrologer priests. Greek mágos is first attested in Heraclitus (6th century BC, apud. Clement Protrepticus 12) who curses the Magians and others for their "impious rites". Likewise, sorcery was taken in ca. 1300 from Old French sorcerie, which is from Vulgar Latin *sortiarius, from sors "fate", apparently meaning "one who influences fate". [edit]Common features of magical practice [edit]Rituals Magical rituals are the precisely defined actions (including speech) used to work magic. Bronisław Malinowski describes ritual language as possessing a high "coefficient of weirdness", by which he means that the language used in ritual is archaic and out of the ordinary, which helps foster the proper mindset to believe in the ritual.[6] S. J. Tambiah notes, however, that even if the power of the ritual is said to reside in the words, "the words only become effective if uttered in a very special context of other action."[7] These other actions typically consist of gestures, possibly performed with special objects at a particular place or time. Object, location, and performer may require purification beforehand. This caveat draws a parallel to the felicity conditions J. L. Austin requires of performative utterances.[8] By "performativity" Austin means that the ritual act itself achieves the stated goal. For example, a wedding ceremony can be understood as a ritual, and only by properly performing the ritual does the marriage occur. Émile Durkheim stresses the importance of rituals as a tool to achieve "collective effervescence", which serves to help unify society. Psychologists, on the other hand, describe rituals in comparison to obsessive-compulsive rituals, noting that attentional focus falls on the lower level representation of simple gestures.[9] This results in goal demotion, as the ritual places more emphasis on performing the ritual just right than on the connection between the ritual and the goal. However, the purpose of ritual is to act as a focus and the effect will vary depending on the individual. [edit]Magical symbols Helm of Awe (ægishjálmr) - magical symbol worn by Vikings for invincibility. Modern day use by Ásatrú followers for protection. Magic often utilizes symbols that are thought to be intrinsically efficacious. Anthropologists, such as Sir James Frazer (1854–1938), have characterized the implementation of symbols into two primary categories: the "principle of similarity", and the "principle of contagion." Frazer further categorized these principles as falling under "sympathetic magic", and "contagious magic." Frazer asserted that these concepts were "general or generic laws of thought, which were misapplied in magic."[10] [edit]The Principle of Similarity The principle of similarity, also known as the "association of ideas", which falls under the category of sympathetic magic, is the thought that if a certain result follows a certain action, then that action must be responsible for the result. Therefore, if one is to perform this action again, the same result can again be expected. One classic example of this mode of thought is that of the rooster and the sunrise. When a rooster crows, it is a response to the rising of the sun. Based on sympathetic magic, one might interpret these series of events differently. The law of similarity would suggest that since the sunrise follows the crowing of the rooster, the rooster must have caused the sun to rise.[11] Causality is inferred where it might not otherwise have been. Therefore, a practitioner might believe that if he is able to cause the rooster to crow, he will be able to control the timing of the sunrise. Another use of the principle of similarity is the construction and manipulation of representations of some target to be affected (e.g. voodoo dolls), believed to bring about a corresponding effect on the target (e.g. breaking a limb of a doll will bring about an injury in the corresponding limb of someone depicted by the doll). [edit]The Principle of Contagion Another primary type of magical thinking includes the principle of contagion. This principle suggests that once two objects come into contact with each other, they will continue to affect each other even after the contact between them has been broken. One example that Tambiah gives is related to adoption. Among some American Indians, for example, when a child is adopted his or her adoptive mother will pull the child through some of her clothes, symbolically representing the birth process and thereby associating the child with herself.[12] Therefore, the child emotionally becomes hers even though their relationship is not biological. As Claude Lévi-Strauss would put it: the birth "would consist, therefore, in making explicit a situation originally existing on the emotional level and in rendering acceptable to the mind pains which the body refuses to tolerate…the woman believes in the myth and belongs to a society which believes in it."[13] Symbols, for many cultures that use magic, are seen as a type of technology. Natives might use symbols and symbolic actions to bring about change and improvements, much like Western cultures might use advanced irrigation techniques to promote soil fertility and crop growth. Michael Brown discusses the use of nantag stones among the Aguaruna as being similar to this type of "technology."[14] These stones are brought into contact with stem cuttings of plants like manioc before they are planted in an effort to promote growth. Nantag are powerful tangible symbols of fertility, so they are brought into contact with crops to transmit their fertility to the plants. Others argue that ritualistic actions are merely therapeutic. Tambiah cites the example of a native hitting the ground with a stick. While some may interpret this action as symbolic (i.e. the man is trying to make the ground yield crops through force), others would simply see a man unleashing his frustration at poor crop returns. Ultimately, whether or not an action is symbolic depends upon the context of the situation as well as the ontology of the culture. Many symbolic actions are derived from mythology and unique associations, whereas other ritualistic actions are just simple expressions of emotion and are not intended to enact any type of change. [edit]Magical language The performance of magic almost always involves the use of language. Whether spoken out loud or unspoken, words are frequently used to access or guide magical power. In "The Magical Power of Words" (1968) S. J. Tambiah argues that the connection between language and magic is due to a belief in the inherent ability of words to influence the universe. Bronisław Malinowski, in Coral Gardens and their Magic (1935), suggests that this belief is an extension of man's basic use of language to describe his surroundings, in which "the knowledge of the right words, appropriate phrases and the more highly developed forms of speech, gives man a power over and above his own limited field of personal action."[15] Magical speech is therefore a ritual act and is of equal or even greater importance to the performance of magic than non-verbal acts.[16] Not all speech is considered magical. Only certain words and phrases or words spoken in a specific context are considered to have magical power.[17] Magical language, according to C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards's (1923) categories of speech, is distinct from scientific language because it is emotive and it converts words into symbols for emotions; whereas in scientific language words are tied to specific meanings and refer to an objective external reality.[18] Magical language is therefore particularly adept at constructing metaphors that establish symbols and link magical rituals to the world.[19] Malinowski argues that "the language of magic is sacred, set and used for an entirely different purpose to that of ordinary life."[20] The two forms of language are differentiated through word choice, grammar, style, or by the use of specific phrases or forms: prayers, spells, songs, blessings, or chants, for example. Sacred modes of language often employ archaic words and forms in an attempt to invoke the purity or "truth" of a religious or a cultural "golden age". The use of Hebrew in Judaism is an example.[21] Another potential source of the power of words is their secrecy and exclusivity. Much sacred language is differentiated enough from common language that it is incomprehensible to the majority of the population and it can only be used and interpreted by specialized practitioners (magicians, priests, shamans, even mullahs).[22][23] In this respect, Tambiah argues that magical languages violate the primary function of language: communication.[24] Yet adherents of magic are still able to use and to value the magical function of words by believing in the inherent power of the words themselves and in the meaning that they must provide for those who do understand them. This leads Tambiah to conclude that "the remarkable disjunction between sacred and profane language which exists as a general fact is not necessarily linked to the need to embody sacred words in an exclusive language."[21] [edit]Magicians Main article: Magician (paranormal) Magician. Pierpont Morgan, Visconti Sforza A magician is any practitioner of magic; therefore a magician may be a specialist or a common practitioner, even if he or she does not consider himself a magician.[25] All that is required is the possession of esoteric knowledge, traits, or expertise that are culturally acknowledged to harbor magical powers. Magical knowledge is usually passed down from one magician to another through family or apprenticeships, though in some cultures it may also be purchased.[26] The information transferred usually consists of instructions on how to perform a variety of rituals, manipulate magical objects, or how to appeal to gods or to other supernatural forces. Magical knowledge is often well guarded, as it is a valuable commodity to which each magician believes that he has a proprietary right.[27] Yet the possession of magical knowledge alone may be insufficient to grant magical power; often a person must also possess certain magical objects, traits or life experiences in order to be a magician. Among the Azande, for example, in order to question an oracle a man must have both the physical oracle (poison, or a washboard, for example) and knowledge of the words and the rites needed to make the object function.[26] A variety of personal traits may be credited to magical power, though frequently they are associated with an unusual birth into the world.[28] For example, in 16th century Friuli, babies born with the caul were believed to be good witches, benandanti, who would engage evil witches in nighttime battles over the bounty of the next year's crops.[29] Certain post-birth experiences may also be believed to convey magical power. For example a person's survival of a near-death illness may be taken as evidence of their power as a healer: in Bali a medium's survival is proof of her association with a patron deity and therefore her ability to communicate with other gods and spirits.[30] Initiations are perhaps the most commonly used ceremonies to establish and to differentiate magicians from common people. In these rites the magician's relationship to the supernatural and his entry into a closed professional class is established, often through rituals that simulate death and rebirth into a new life.[31] Given the exclusivity of the criteria needed to become a magician, much magic is performed by specialists.[32] Laypeople will likely have some simple magical rituals for everyday living, but in situations of particular importance, especially when health or major life events are concerned, a specialist magician will often be consulted.[33] The powers of both specialist and common magicians are determined by culturally accepted standards of the sources and the breadth of magic. A magician may not simply invent or claim new magic; the magician is only as powerful as his peers believe him to be.[34] In different cultures, various types of magicians may be differentiated based on their abilities, their sources of power, and on moral considerations, including divisions into different categories like sorcerer, witch, healer and others. [edit]Witchcraft Main article: Witchcraft In non-scientific societies, perceived magical attack is an ideology sometimes employed to explain personal or societal misfortune.[35] In anthropological and historical contexts this is often termed witchcraft or sorcery, and the perceived attackers 'witches' or 'sorcerers'. Their maleficium is often seen as a biological trait or an acquired skill.[36] Known members of the community may be accused as witches, or the witches may be perceived as supernatural, non-human entities.[37] In early modern Europe and Britain such accusations led to the executions of tens of thousands of people, who were seen to be in league with Satan. Those accused of being satanic 'witches' were often practitioners of (usually benign) folk magic,[38] and the English term 'witch' was also sometimes used without its pejorative sense to describe such practitioners.[39] [edit]Theories of magic This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2006) [edit]Anthropological and psychological origins [edit]Definitions of relevant terminology The foremost perspectives on magic in anthropology are functionalist, symbolist and intellectualist. These three perspectives are used to describe how magic works in a society. The functionalist perspective, usually associated with Bronisław Malinowski, maintains that all aspects of society are meaningful and interrelated.[40] In the functionalist perspective, magic performs a latent function in the society. The symbolist perspective researches the subtle meaning in rituals and myths that define a society[41] and deals with questions of theodicy -- why do bad things happen to good people. Finally the intellectualist perspective, associated with Edward Burnett Tylor and Sir James Frazer, regard magic as logical, but based on a flawed understanding of the world. [edit]Magical thinking Main article: Magical thinking The term 'magical thinking' in anthropology, psychology, and cognitive science refers to nonscientific causal reasoning often involving mistaken associative thinking, such as the perceived ability of the mind to affect the physical world (see the philosophical problem of mental causation) or correlation mistaken for causation. Perceived causal associations between actions or events may derive from symbolic associations such as metaphor, metonym, and apparent synchronicity. [edit]Psychological theories of magic Main article: Psychological theories of magic Psychological theories treat magic as a personal phenomenon intended to meet individual needs, as opposed to a social phenomenon serving a collective purpose. The explanatory power of magic should not be underestimated, however. Both in the past and in the modern world magical belief systems can provide explanations for otherwise difficult or impossible to understand phenomena while providing a spiritual and metaphysical grounding for the individual. Furthermore, as both Brian Feltham and Scott E. Hendrix argue, magical beliefs need not represent a form of irrationality, nor should they be viewed as incompatible with modern views of the world.[42][43] [edit]Intellectualist perspectives Further information: Myth and ritual and Shamanism The belief that one can influence supernatural powers, by prayer, sacrifice or invocation goes back to prehistoric religion and is present in early records such as the Egyptian pyramid texts and the Indian Vedas.[44] James George Frazer asserted that magical observations are the result of an internal dysfunction: "Men mistook the order of their ideas for the order of nature, and hence imagined that the control which they have, or seem to have, over their thoughts, permitted them to exercise a corresponding control over things."[45] Others, such as N. W. Thomas[46] and Sigmund Freud have rejected this explanation. Freud explains that "the associated theory of magic merely explains the paths along which magic proceeds; it does not explain its true essence, namely the misunderstanding which leads it to replace the laws of nature by psychological ones".[47] Freud emphasizes that what led primitive men to come up with magic is the power of wishes: "His wishes are accompanied by a motor impulse, the will, which is later destined to alter the whole face of the earth in order to satisfy his wishes. This motor impulse is at first employed to give a representation of the satisfying situation in such a way that it becomes possible to experience the satisfaction by means of what might be described as motor hallucinations. This kind of representation of a satisfied wish is quite comparable to children's play, which succeeds their earlier purely sensory technique of satisfaction. [...] As time goes on, the psychological accent shifts from the motives for the magical act on to the measures by which it is carried out—that is, on to the act itself. [...] It thus comes to appear as though it is the magical act itself which, owing to its similarity with the desired result, alone determines the occurrence of that result."[48] [edit]Theories on the relationship of magic to religion Main articles: Magic and religion and Myth and ritual Magic and religion are categories of beliefs and systems of knowledge used within societies. While generally considered distinct categories in western cultures, the interactions, similarities, and differences have been central to the study of magic for many theorists in sociology and anthropology, including Frazer, Mauss, S. J. Tambiah, Malinowski and Isabelle Sarginson. From the intellectualist and functionalist perspectives, magic is often considered most analogous to science and technology. [edit]Marcel Mauss In A General Theory of Magic,[49] Marcel Mauss classifies magic as a social phenomenon, akin to religion and science, but yet a distinct category. In practice, magic bears a strong resemblance to religion. Both use similar types of rites, materials, social roles and relationships to accomplish aims and engender belief. They both operate on similar principles, in particular those of consecration and sanctity of objects and places, interaction with supernatural powers mediated by an expert, employment of symbolism, sacrifice, purification and representation in rites, and the importance of tradition and continuation of knowledge. Magic and religion also share a collective character and totality of belief. The rules and powers of each are determined by the community's ideals and beliefs and so may slowly evolve. Additionally neither supports partial belief. Belief in one aspect of the phenomena necessitates belief in the whole, and each incorporates structural loopholes to accommodate contradictions. The distinction Mauss draws between religion and magic is both of sentiment and practice. He portrays magic as an element of pre-modern societies and in many respects an antithesis of religion. Magic is secretive and isolated, and rarely performed publicly in order to protect and to preserve occult knowledge. Religion is predictable and prescribed and is usually performed openly in order to impart knowledge to the community. While these two phenomena do share many ritual forms, Mauss concludes that "a magical rite is any rite that does not play a part in organized cults. It is private, secret, mysterious and approaches the limit of prohibited rite."[3] In practice, magic differs from religion in desired outcome. Religion seeks to satisfy moral and metaphysical ends, while magic is a functional art which often seeks to accomplish tangible results. In this respect magic resembles technology and science. Belief in each is diffuse, universal, and removed from the origin of the practice. Yet, the similarity between these social phenomena is limited, as science is based in experimentation and development, while magic is an "a priori belief."[50] Mauss concludes that though magical beliefs and rites are most analogous to religion, magic remains a social phenomenon distinct from religion and science with its own characteristic rules, acts and aims. [edit]Tambiah According to Tambiah, magic, science, and religion all have their own "quality of rationality", and have been influenced by politics and ideology.[51] Tambiah also believes that the perceptions of these three ideas have evolved over time as a result of Western thought. The lines of demarcation between these ideas depend upon the perspective of a variety of anthropologists, but Tambiah has his own opinions regarding magic, science, and religion. According to Tambiah, religion is based on an organized community, and it is supposed to encompass all aspects of life. In religion, man is obligated to an outside power and he is supposed to feel piety towards that power. Religion is effective and attractive because it is generally exclusive and strongly personal. Also, because religion affects all aspects of life, it is convenient in the sense that morality and notions of acceptable behavior are imposed by God and the supernatural. Science, on the other hand, suggests a clear divide between nature and the supernatural, making its role far less all-encompassing than that of religion. As opposed to religion, Tambiah suggests that mankind has a much more personal control over events. Science, according to Tambiah, is "a system of behavior by which man acquires mastery of the environment."[52] Whereas in religion nature and the supernatural are connected and essentially interchangeable, in science, nature and the supernatural are clearly separate spheres. Also, science is a developed discipline; a logical argument is created and can be challenged. The base of scientific knowledge can be extended, while religion is more concrete and absolute. Magic, the less accepted of the three disciplines in Western society, is an altogether unique idea. Tambiah states that magic is a strictly ritualistic action that implements forces and objects outside the realm of the gods and the supernatural. These objects and events are said to be intrinsically efficacious, so that the supernatural is unnecessary. To some, including the Greeks, magic was considered a "proto-science." Magic has other historical importance as well. Much of the debate between religion and magic originated during the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic Church was attacked for its doctrine of transubstantiation because it was considered a type of sacramental magic. Furthermore, the possibility of anything happening outside of God's purpose was denied. Spells[53] were viewed as ineffective and blasphemous, because religion required belief in "a conscious agent who could be deflected from this purpose by prayer and supplication."[54] Prayer was the only way to effectively enact positive change. The Protestant Reformation was a significant moment in the history of magical thought because Protestantism provided the impetus for a systematic understanding of the world. In this systematic framework, there was no room for magic and its practices. Besides the Reformation, the Renaissance was an influential epoch in the history of thought concerning magic and science. During the Renaissance, magic was less stigmatized even though it was done in secret and therefore considered "occult". Renaissance magic was based on cosmology, and its powers were said to be derived from the stars and the alignment of the planets. Newton himself began his work in mathematics because he wanted to see "whether judicial astrology had any claim to validity."[55] The lines of demarcation between science, magic, and religion all have origins dating to times when established thought processes were challenged. The rise of Western thought essentially initiated the differentiation between the three disciplines. Whereas science could be revised and developed through rational thought, magic was seen as less scientific and systematic than science and religion, making it the least respected of the three. [edit]Bronisław Malinowski Main article: Bronisław Malinowski In his essay "Magic, Science and Religion", Bronisław Malinowski contends that every person, no matter how primitive, uses both magic and science. To make this distinction he breaks up this category into the "sacred" and the "profane"[56] or "magic/religion" and science. He theorizes that feelings of reverence and awe rely on observation of nature and a dependence on its regularity. This observation and reasoning about nature is a type of science. Magic and science both have definite aims to help "human instincts, needs and pursuits."[57] Both magic and science develop procedures that must be followed to accomplish specific goals. Magic and science are both based on knowledge; magic is knowledge of the self and of emotion, while science is knowledge of nature. According to Malinowski, magic and religion are also similar in that they often serve the same function in a society. The difference is that magic is more about the personal power of the individual and religion is about faith in the power of God. Magic is also something that is passed down over generations to a specific group while religion is more broadly available to the community. To end his essay, Malinowski poses the question, "why magic?" He writes, "Magic supplies primitive man with a number of ready-made rituals, acts and beliefs, with a definite mental and practical technique which serves to bridge over the dangerous gaps in every important pursuit or critical situation."[58] [edit]Robin Horton In "African Traditional Thought and Western Science,"[59] Robin Horton compares the magical and religious thinking of non-modernized cultures with western scientific thought. He argues that both traditional beliefs and western science are applications of "theoretical thinking." The common form, function, and purpose of these theoretical idioms are therefore structured and explained by eight main characteristics of this type of thought: In all cultures the majority of human experience can be explained by common sense. The purpose then of theory is to explain forces that operate behind and within the commonsense world. Theory should impose order and reason on everyday life by attributing cause to a few select forces.[60] Theories also help place events in a causal context that is greater than common sense alone can provide, because commonsense causation is inherently limited by what we see and experience. Theoretical formulations are therefore used as intermediaries to link natural effects to natural causes.[61] "Common sense and theory have complementary roles in everyday life."[62] Common sense is more handy and useful for a wide range of everyday circumstances, but occasionally there are circumstances that can only be explained using a wider causal vision, so a jump to theory is made. "Levels of theory vary with context."[63] There are widely and narrowly encompassing theories, and the individual can usually chose which to use in order to understand and explain a situation as is deemed appropriate. All theory breaks up aspects of commonsense events, abstracts them and then reintegrates them into the common usage and understanding.[64] Theory is usually created by analogy between unexplained and familiar phenomena.[65] When theory is based on analogy between explained and unexplained observations, "generally only a limited aspect of the familiar phenomena is incorporated into (the) explanatory model".[66] It is this process of abstraction that contributes to the ability of theories to transcend commonsense explanation. For example, gods have the quality of spirituality by omission of many common aspects of human life. Once a theoretical model has been established, it is often modified to explain contradictory data so that it may no longer represent the analogy on which is was based.[67] While both traditional beliefs and western science are based on theoretical thought, Horton argues that the differences between these knowledge systems in practice and form are due to their states in open and closed cultures.[68] He classifies scientifically oriented cultures as ‘open’ because they are aware of other modes of thought, while traditional cultures are ‘closed’ because they are unaware of alternatives to the established theories. The varying sources of information in these systems results in differences in form which, Horton asserts, often blinds observers from seeing the similarities between the systems as two applications of theoretical thought. [edit]History Further information: History of astrology and History of religions [edit]Ancient Egypt Egyptians believed that with Heka, the activation of the Ka, an aspect of the soul of both gods and humans, (and divine personification of magic), they could influence the gods and gain protection, healing and transformation. Health and wholeness of being were sacred to Heka. There is no word for religion in the ancient Egyptian language as mundane and religious world views were not distinct; thus, Heka was not a secular practice but rather a religious observance. Every aspect of life, every word, plant, animal and ritual was connected to the power and authority of the gods.[69] In ancient Egypt, magic consisted of four components; the primeval potency that empowered the creator-god was identified with Heka, who was accompanied by magical rituals known as Seshaw held within sacred texts called Rw. In addition Pekhret, medicinal prescriptions, were given to patients to bring relief. This magic was used in temple rituals as well as informal situations by priests. These rituals, along with medical practices, formed an integrated therapy for both physical and spiritual health. Magic was also used for protection against the angry deities, jealous ghosts, foreign demons and sorcerers who were thought to cause illness, accidents, poverty and infertility.[70] Temple priests used wands during magical rituals.[citation needed] [edit]Mesopotamia This section requires expansion. In parts of Mesopotamian religion, magic was believed in and actively practiced. At the city of Uruk, archaeologists have excavated houses dating from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE in which cuneiform clay tablets have been unearthed containing magical incantations.[71] [edit]Classical antiquity Main article: Magic in the Greco-Roman world Hecate, the ancient Greek goddess of magic. In ancient Greece magic was viewed negatively because it was foreign, but over time the view of magic involved negative connotations (malign magic) and positive ones in the practice of religion, medicine, and divination.[72][not in citation given] The Greek mystery religions had strongly magical components,[citation needed] and in Egypt, a large number of magical papyri, in Greek, Coptic, and Demotic, have been recovered.[citation needed] They contain early instances of: the use of "magic words" said to have the power to command spirits;[citation needed] the use of wands and other ritual tools;[citation needed] the use of a magic circle to defend the magician against the spirits that he is invoking or evoking;[citation needed] and the use of mysterious symbols or sigils which are thought to be useful when invoking or evoking spirits.[73] The practice of magic was banned in the Roman world, and the Codex Theodosianus states:[74] If any wizard therefore or person imbued with magical contamination who is called by custom of the people a magician...should be apprehended in my retinue, or in that of the Caesar, he shall not escape punishment and torture by the protection of his rank. [edit]Middle Ages Several medieval scholars were considered to be magicians in popular legend, notably Gerbert d'Aurillac and Albertus Magnus: both men were active in the scientific research of their day as well as in ecclesiastical matters, which was enough to attach to them a nimbus of the occult. Magical practice was actively discouraged by the church, but it remained widespread in folk religion throughout the medieval period. The demonology and angelology contained in the earliest grimoires assume a life surrounded by Christian implements and sacred rituals. The underlying theology in these works of Christian demonology encourages the magician to fortify himself with fasting, prayers, and sacraments, so that by using the holy names of God in the sacred languages, he could use divine powers to coerce demons into appearing and serving his usually lustful or avaricious magical goals.[75] 13th century astrologers include Johannes de Sacrobosco and Guido Bonatti. [edit]Renaissance Further information: Renaissance magic Renaissance humanism saw resurgence in hermeticism and Neo-Platonic varieties of ceremonial magic. The Renaissance, on the other hand, saw the rise of science, in such forms as the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of the universe, the distinction of astronomy from astrology, and of chemistry from alchemy.[76] The seven artes magicae or artes prohibitae or arts prohibited by canon law by Johannes Hartlieb in 1456 were: nigromancy (which included "black magic" and "demonology"), geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, pyromancy, chiromancy, and scapulimancy and their sevenfold partition emulated the artes liberales and artes mechanicae. Both bourgeoisie and nobility in the 15th and 16th century showed great fascination with these arts, which exerted an exotic charm by their ascription to Arabic, Jewish, Gypsy and Egyptian sources. There was great uncertainty in distinguishing practices of superstition, occultism, and perfectly sound scholarly knowledge or pious ritual. The intellectual and spiritual tensions erupted in the Early Modern witch craze, further reinforced by the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, especially in Germany, England, and Scotland.[76] [edit]Baroque Further information: 17th-century philosophy and natural magic A talisman from the Black Pullet, a late grimoire containing instructions on how a magician might cast rings and craft amulets for various magical applications, culminating in the Hen that Lays Golden Eggs. Study of the occult arts remained intellectually respectable well into the 17th century, and only gradually divided into the modern categories of natural science, occultism, and superstition. The 17th century saw the gradual rise of the "age of reason", while belief in witchcraft and sorcery, and consequently the irrational surge of Early Modern witch trials, receded, a process only completed at the end of the Baroque period circa 1730. Christian Thomasius still met opposition as he argued in his 1701 Dissertatio de crimine magiae that it was meaningless to make dealing with the devil a criminal offence, since it was impossible to really commit the crime in the first place. In Britain, the Witchcraft Act of 1735 established that people could not be punished for consorting with spirits, while would-be magicians pretending to be able to invoke spirits could still be fined as con artists. [The] wonderful power of sympathy, which exists throughout the whole system of nature, where everything is excited to beget or love its like, and is drawn after it, as the loadstone draws iron… There is … such natural accord and discord, that some will prosper more luxuriantly in another's company; while some, again, will droop and die away, being planted near each other. The lily and the rose rejoice by each other's side; whilst … fruits will neither ripen nor grow in aspects that are inimical to them. In stones likewise, in minerals, … the same sympathies and antipathies are preserved. Animated nature, in every clime, in every corner of the globe, is also pregnant with similar qualities… Thus we find that one particular bone … in a hare's foot instantly mitigates the most excruciating tortures of the cramp; yet no other bone nor part of that animal can do the like… From what has been premised, we may readily conclude that there are two distinct species of magic; one whereof, being inherent in the occult properties of nature, is called natural magic; and the other, being obnoxious and contrary to nature, is termed infernal magic, because it is accomplished by infernal agency or compact with the devil…[77] Under the veil of natural magic, it hath pleased the Almighty to conceal many valuable and excellent gifts, which common people either think miraculous, or next to impossible. And yet in truth, natural magic is nothing more than the workmanship of nature, made manifest by art; for, in tillage, as nature produceth corn and herbs, so art, being nature's handmaid, prepareth and helpeth it forward… And, though these things, while they lie hid in nature, do many of them seem impossible and miraculous, yet, when they are known, and the simplicity revealed, our difficulty of apprehension ceases, and the wonder is at an end; for that only is wonderful to the beholder whereof he can conceive no cause nor reason… Many philosophers of the first eminence, as Plato, Pythagoras, Empedocles, Democritus, &c. travelled through every region of the known world for the accomplishment of this kind of knowledge; and, at their return, they publicly preached and taught it. But above all, we learn from sacred and profane history, that Solomon was the greatest proficient in this art of any either before or since his time; as he himself hath declared in Ecclesiastes and the Book of Wisdom, where he saith, "God hath given me the true science of things, so as to know how the world was made, and the power of the elements, the beginning, and the end, and the midst of times, the change of seasons, the courses of the year, and the situation of the stars, the nature of human beings, and the quality of beasts, the power of winds, and the imaginations of the mind; the diversities of plants, the virtues of roots, and all things whatsoever, whether secret or known, manifest or invisible."[78] And hence it was that the magi, or followers of natural magic, were accounted wise, and the study honourable; because it consists in nothing more than the most profound and perfect part of natural philosophy, which defines the nature, causes, and effects, of things.[78] How far such inventions as are called charms, amulets, periapts, and the like, have any foundation in natural magic, may be worth our enquiry; because, if cures are to be effected through their medium, and that without any thing derogatory to the attributes of the Deity, or the principles of religion, I see no reason why they should be rejected with that inexorable contempt which levels the works of God with the folly and weakness of men. Not that I would encourage superstition, or become an advocate for a ferrago of absurdities; but, when the simplicity of natural things, and their effects, are rejected merely to encourage professional artifice and emolument, it is prudent for us to distinguish between the extremes of bigoted superstition and total unbelief.[79] It was the opinion of many eminent physicians, of the first ability and learning, that such kind of charms or periapts as consisted of certain odoriferous herbs, balsamic roots, mineral concretions, and metallic substances, might have, and most probably possessed, by means of their strong medicinal properties, the virtue of curing… though without the least surprise or admiration; because the one appears in a great measure to be the consequence of manual operation, which is perceptible and visible to the senses, whilst the other acts by an innate or occult power, which the eye cannot see, nor the mind so readily comprehend; yet, in both cases, perhaps, the effect is produced by a similar cause; and consequently all such remedies… are worthy of our regard, and ought to excite in us not only a veneration for the simple practice of the ancients in their medical experiments, but a due sense of gratitude to the wise Author of our being, who enables us, by such easy means, to remove the infirmities incident to mankind. Many reputable authors … contend that not only such physical alligations, appensions, periapts, amulets, charms, &c. which, from their materials appear to imbibe and to diffuse the medical properties above described, ought in certain obstinate and equivocal disorders to be applied, but those likewise which from their external form and composition have no such inherent virtues to recommend them; for harm they can do none, and good they might do, either by accident or through the force of imagination. And it is asserted, with very great truth, that through the medium of hope and fear, sufficiently impressed upon the mind or imagination… Of the truth of this we have the strongest and most infallible evidence in the hiccough, which is instantaneously cured by any sudden effect of fear or surprise; … Seeing, therefore, that such virtues lie hid in the occult properties of nature, united with the sense or imagination of man… without any compact with spirits, or dealings with the devil; we surely ought to receive them into our practice, and to adopt them as often as occasion seriously requires, although professional emolument and pecuniary advantage might in some instances be narrowed by it.[80][81] — Ebenezer Sibly (1751–1800), An Illustration of the Celestial Science of Astrology, Part the Fourth. Containing the Distinction between Astrology and the Wicked Practice of Exorcism. with a General Display of Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination, founded upon the Existence of Spirits Good and Bad and their Affinity with the Affairs of this World. Further information: Isaac Newton's occult studies "Newton was not the first of the age of reason, he was the last of the magicians." — John Maynard Keynes [edit]Romanticism From 1776 to 1781 AD, Jacob Philadelphia performed feats of magic, sometimes under the guise of scientific exhibitions, throughout Europe and Russia. Baron Carl Reichenbach's experiments with his Odic force appeared to be an attempt to bridge the gap between magic and science. More recent periods of renewed interest in magic occurred around the end of the 19th century, where Symbolism and other offshoots of Romanticism cultivated a renewed interest in exotic spiritualities. European colonialism put Westerners in contact with India and Egypt and re-introduced exotic beliefs. Hindu and Egyptian mythology frequently feature in 19th century magical texts.[82] The late 19th century spawned a large number of magical organizations, including the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Theosophical Society, and specifically magical variants on Freemasonry. The Golden Dawn represented perhaps the peak of this wave of magic, attracting cultural celebrities like William Butler Yeats, Algernon Blackwood, and Arthur Machen.[83] [edit]Magic in various cultural contexts [edit]Animism and folk religion An 1873 Victorian illustration of a "Ju-ju house" on the Gold Coast showing fetishised skulls and bones. Juju charm protecting dugout canoe on riverbank, in Suriname.1954. Appearing in various tribal peoples from Aboriginal Australia and Māori New Zealand to the Amazon, African savannah, and pagan Europe, some form of shamanic contact with the spirit world seems to be nearly universal in the early development of human communities. Much of the Babylonian and Egyptian pictorial writing characters appear derived from the same sources. Although indigenous magical traditions persist to this day, very early on some communities transitioned from nomadic to agricultural civilizations, and with this shift, the development of spiritual life mirrored that of civic life. Just as tribal elders were consolidated and transformed into kings and bureaucrats, so too were shamans and adepts changed into priests and a priestly caste. This shift is by no means in nomenclature alone. While the shaman's task was to negotiate between the tribe and the spirit world, on behalf of the tribe, as directed by the collective will of the tribe, the priest's role was to transfer instructions from the deities to the city-state, on behalf of the deities, as directed by the will of those deities. This shift represents the first major usurpation of power by distancing magic from those participating in that magic. It is at this stage of development that highly codified and elaborate rituals, setting the stage for formal religions, began to emerge, such as the funeral rites of the Egyptians and the sacrifice rituals of the Babylonians, Persians, Aztecs and Mayans. In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that during the Congo Civil War, his people were hunted down and eaten as though they were game animals. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers.[84][85] On April, 2008, Kinshasa, the police arrested 14 suspected victims (of penis snatching) and sorcerers accused of using black magic or witchcraft to steal (make disappear) or shrink men's penises to extort cash for cure, amid a wave of panic.[86] Arrests were made in an effort to avoid bloodshed seen in Ghana a decade ago, when 12 alleged penis snatchers were beaten to death by mobs.[87] [edit]Native American medicine Main article: Shamanism#Americas The Shamanism practiced by the indigenous peoples of the Americas was called "medicine" and was practiced by medicine men. In addition to healing, medicine served many other purposes, for example among the Cheyenne, one of Plains Indians that lived in the Great Plains of North America, medicine such as war paint, war shields, war shirts, and war bonnets, such as the famous war bonnet of Roman Nose, served to protect a warrior from wounding during battle.[88][89] [edit]Magic in Hinduism Traditional welcome performance, Mitral, Kheda district, Gujarat The Atharva Veda is a veda that deals with mantras that can be used for both good and bad. The word mantrik in India literally means "magician" since the mantrik usually knows mantras, spells, and curses which can be used for or against forms of magic. Tantra is likewise employed for ritual magic by the tantrik. Many ascetics after long periods of penance and meditation are alleged to attain a state where they may utilize supernatural powers. However, many say that they choose not to use them and instead focus on transcending beyond physical power into the realm of spirituality. Many siddhars are said to have performed miracles that would ordinarily be impossible to perform. The Aghoris consume human flesh in pursuit of immortality and the supernatural. They distinguish themselves from other Hindu sects and priests by their alcoholic and cannibalistic rituals.[90] [edit]Western magic Further information: Western esotericism In general, the 20th century has seen a sharp rise in public interest in various forms of magical practice, and the foundation of a number of traditions and organisations, ranging from the distinctly religious to the philosophical. In England, a further revival of interest in magic was heralded by the repeal of the last Witchcraft Act in 1951. In 1954 Gerald Gardner published a book, Witchcraft Today, in which he claimed to reveal the existence of a witch-cult that dated back to pre-Christian Europe. Although many of Gardner's claims have since come under intensive criticism from sources both within and without the Neopagan community, his works remain the most important founding stone of Wicca. Gardner's newly created religion, and many others, took off in the atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s, when the counterculture of the hippies also spawned another period of renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices.[91] The various branches of Neopaganism and other Earth religions that have emerged since Gardner's publication tend to follow a pattern in combining the practice of magic and religion, although this combination is not exclusive to them. Following the trend of magic associated with counterculture, some feminists launched an independent revival of goddess worship. This brought them into contact with the Gardnerian tradition of magical religion (or religious magic), and deeply influenced that tradition in return.[83] The pentagram, an ancient geometrical symbol known from many cultures, is often associated with magic. In Europe, the Pythagoreans first used the pentagram as a symbol of their movement. Some people in the West believe in or practice various forms of magic. The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Aleister Crowley's Thelema and their subsequent offshoots, influenced by Eliphas Levi, are most commonly associated with the resurgence of magical tradition in the English speaking world of the 20th century. Other, similar resurgences took place at roughly the same time, centered in France and Germany. The western traditions acknowledging the natural elements, the seasons, and the practitioner's relationship with the Earth, Gaia, or a primary Goddess have derived at least in part from these magical groups, and are mostly considered Neopagan. Long-standing indigenous traditions of magic are regarded as Pagan. Allegedly for gematric reasons Aleister Crowley preferred the spelling magick, defining it as "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the will." By this, he included "mundane" acts of change as well as ritual magic. In Magick in Theory and Practice, Chapter XIV, Crowley says: What is a Magical Operation? It may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass by Will. We must not exclude potato-growing or banking from our definition. Let us take a very simple example of a Magical Act: that of a man blowing his nose. Western magical traditions include hermetic magic and its many offshoots predominantly inspired by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, as well as Wicca and some other Neopagan religions. Definitions, concepts and uses of magic tend to vary even within magical traditions and indeed often between individuals. Wicca is one of the more publicly known traditions within Neopaganism, a magical religion inspired by medieval witchcraft, with influences including the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and Crowley. Ruickbie (2004:193-209) shows that Wiccans and witches define magic in many different ways and use it for a number of different purposes. Despite that diversity of opinion, he concludes that the result upon the practitioner is generally perceived as a positive one. The belief in Magic is often considered superstitious, although it could be argued that some magical practices rely upon widely accepted psychological principles and are only intended to promote internal personal changes within the practitioner themselves.[citation needed] Visualization techniques, for instance, widely used by magicians, are also used in somewhat different contexts in fields such as clinical psychology and sports training.[92] [edit]Theories of adherents Adherents to magic believe that it may work by one or more of the following basic principles:[citation needed] A mystical force or energy that is natural, but cannot be detected by science at present, and which may not be detectable at all. Common terms referring to such magical energy include mana, numen, chi or kundalini. These are sometimes regarded as fluctuations of an underlying primary substance (akasha, aether) that is present in all things and interconnects and binds all. Magical energy is thus also present in all things, though it can be especially concentrated in magical objects. Magical energies are typically seen as being especially responsive to the use of symbols, so that a person, event or object can be affected by manipulating an object that symbolically represents them or it (as in sigil magic, for instance). This corresponds to James Frazer's theory of sympathetic magic. Intervention of spirits, similar to hypothetical natural forces, but with their own consciousness and intelligence. Believers in spirits will often describe a whole cosmos of beings of many different kinds, sometimes organized into a hierarchy. Manipulation of the Elements, by using the will of the magician and symbols or objects which are representative of the element(s). Western practitioners typically use the Classical elements of Earth, Air, Water, and Fire. Concentration or meditation. A certain amount of focusing or restricting the mind to some imagined object (or will), according to Aleister Crowley, produces mystical attainment or "an occurrence in the brain characterized essentially by the uniting of subject and object" (Book Four, Part 1: Mysticism). Magic, as defined previously, seeks to aid concentration by constantly recalling the attention to the chosen object (or Will), thereby producing said attainment. For example, if one wishes to concentrate on a god, one might memorize a system of correspondences (perhaps chosen arbitrarily, as this would not affect its usefulness for mystical purposes) and then make every object that one sees "correspond" to said god. Aleister Crowley wrote that ". . . the exaltation of the mind by means of magickal practices leads (as one may say, in spite of itself) to the same results as occur in straightforward Yoga." Crowley's magick thus becomes a form of mental, mystical, or spiritual discipline, designed to train the mind to achieve greater concentration. Crowley also made claims for the paranormal effects of magick, suggesting a connection with the first principle in this list. However, he defined any attempt to use this power for a purpose other than aiding mental or mystical attainment as "black magick". The magical power of the subconscious mind. To believers who think that they need to convince their subconscious mind to make the changes that they desire, all spirits and energies are projections and symbols that make sense to the subconscious. A variant of this belief is that the subconscious is capable of contacting spirits, who in turn can work magic. The Oneness of All. Based on the fundamental concepts of monism and Non-duality, this philosophy holds that Magic is little more than the application of one's own inherent unity with the universe. Hinging upon the personal realization, or "illumination", that the self is limitless, one may live in unison with nature, seeking and preserving balance in all things. Many more theories exist. Practitioners will often mix these concepts, and sometimes even invent some themselves. In the contemporary current of chaos magic in particular, it is not unusual to believe that any concept of magic works. Key principles of utilizing Magic are often said to be Concentration and Visualization. Many of those who purportedly cast spells attain a mental state called the "Trance State" to enable the spell. The Trance State is often described as an emptying of the mind, akin to meditation. [edit]Magic and monotheism Officially, Christianity and Islam characterize magic as forbidden witchcraft, and have often prosecuted alleged practitioners of it with varying degrees of severity. Other religions, such as Judaism and Zoroastrianism have rather more ambiguous positions towards it. Trends in monotheistic thought have dismissed all such manifestations as trickery and illusion, nothing more than dishonest gimmicks. [edit]In Judaism Further information: Kabbalah and Hermetic Qabalah In Judaism the Torah prohibits Jews from being superstitious or engaging in astrology (Lev. 19, 26); from muttering incantations (Deut. 18, 11); from consulting an ov (mediums), yidoni (seers), or attempting to contact the dead (Deut. 18, 11); from going into a trance to foresee events, and from performing acts of magic (Deut. 18, 10). See 613 Mitzvot. Virtually all works pseudepigraphically claim, or are ascribed, ancient authorship. For example, Sefer Raziel HaMalach, an astro-magical text partly based on a magical manual of late antiquity, Sefer Raziel HaMalakh, was, according to the kabbalists, transmitted to Adam by the angel Raziel after he was evicted from Eden. Another famous work, the Sefer Yetzirah, supposedly dates back to the patriarch Abraham. This tendency toward pseudepigraphy has its roots in Apocalyptic literature, which claims that esoteric knowledge such as magic, divination and astrology was transmitted to humans in the mythic past by the two angels, Aza and Azaz'el (in other places, Azaz'el and Uzaz'el) who 'fell' from heaven (see Genesis 6:4). [edit]In Christianity Further information: Renaissance magic, Grimoire, Christian views on witchcraft, and Theurgy Magia was viewed with suspicion by Christianity from the time of the Church fathers. It was, however, never completely settled whether there may be permissible practices, e.g. involving relics or holy water as opposed to "blasphemous" necromancy (nigromantia) involving the invocation of demons (goetia). The distinction became particularly pointed and controversial during the Early Modern witch-hunts, with some authors such as Johannes Hartlieb denouncing all magical practice as blasphemous, while others portrayed natural magic as not sinful. The position taken by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, one of the foremost Renaissance magicians, is ambiguous. The character of Faustus, likely based on a historical 16th century magician or charlatan, became the prototypical popular tale of a learned magician who succumbs to a pact with the devil. The current Catechism of the Catholic Church discusses divination and magic under the heading of the First Commandment.[93] It is careful to allow for the possibility of divinely inspired prophecy, but it rejects "all forms of divination": (2116) All forms of divination are to be rejected: recourse to Satan or demons, conjuring up the dead or other practices falsely supposed to "unveil" the future. Consulting horoscopes, astrology, palm reading, interpretation of omens and lots, the phenomena of clairvoyance, and recourse to mediums all conceal a desire for power over time, history, and, in the last analysis, other human beings, as well as a wish to conciliate hidden powers. They contradict the honor, respect, and loving fear that we owe to God alone. The section on "practices of magic or sorcery" is less absolute, specifying "attempts to tame occult powers" in order to "have supernatural power over others". Such are denounced as "gravely contrary to the virtue of religion", notably avoiding a statement on whether such attempts can have any actual effect[citation needed] (that is, attempts to employ occult practices are identified as violating the First Commandment because they in themselves betray a lack of faith, and not because they may or may not result in the desired effect). The Catechism expresses skepticism towards widespread practices of folk Catholicism without outlawing them explicitly: (2117) [...] Wearing charms is also reprehensible. Spiritism often implies divination or magical practices; the Church for her part warns the faithful against it. Recourse to so-called traditional cures does not justify either the invocation of evil powers or the exploitation of another's credulity. Some argue that the recent popularity of the prosperity gospel constitutes a return to magical thinking within Christianity. Note also that Gnostic Christianity has a strong mystical current, but shies away from practical magic and focuses more on theurgy. [edit]In Islam Any discussion of Muslim magic poses a double set of problems. On the one hand, like its counterpart in predominantly Christian cultures, magic is forbidden by orthodox leaders and legal opinions. On the other hand, translating various Arabic terms as ‘magic’ causes another set of problems with no clear answers. As with any question regarding the behavior of Muslims in relation to authorized practices, theological decisions begin by consulting the Qur’an. The second chapter introduces an explanation for the introduction of magic into the world: They followed what the evil ones gave out (falsely) against the power of Solomon: the blasphemers were, not Solomon, but the evil ones, teaching men magic, and such things as came down at Babylon to the angels Harut and Marut. But neither of these taught anyone (such things) without saying: "We are only for trial; so do not blaspheme." They learned from them the means to sow discord between man and wife. But they could not thus harm anyone except by Allah's permission. And they learned what harmed them, not what profited them. And they knew that the buyers of (magic) would have no share in the happiness of the Hereafter. And vile was the price for which they did sell their souls, if they but knew! (Q 2:102). Though it presents a generally contemptuous attitude towards magic (Muhammad was accused by his detractors of being a magician),[94] the Qur’an distinguishes between apparent magic (miracles sanctioned by Allah) and real magic. The first is that used by Solomon, who being a prophet of Allah, is assumed to have used miraculous powers with Allah's blessing.[95] Muslims also believe that Allah made an army of Djinn obedient to him. The second form is the magic that was taught by the "evil ones", or al-shayatin. Al-shayatin has two meanings; the first is similar to the Christian Satan. The second meaning, which is the one used here, refers to a djinn of superior power.[96] The al-shayatin taught knowledge of evil and "pretended to force the laws of nature and the will of Allah . . ."[97] According to this belief, those who follow this path turn themselves from Allah and cannot reach heaven. The Arabic word translated in this passage as "magic" is sihr. The etymological meaning of sihr suggests that "it is the turning . . . of a thing from its true nature . . . or form . . . to something else which is unreal or a mere appearance . . ."[98] By the first millennium CE, sihr became a fully developed system in Islamic society. Within this system, all magicians "assert[ed] that magic is worked by the obedience of spirits to the magician."[99] The efficacy of this system comes from the belief that every Arabic letter, every word, verse, and chapter in the Qur’an, every month, day, time and name were created by Allah a priori, and that each has an angel and a djinn servant.[100] It is through the knowledge of the names of these servants that an actor is able to control the angel and djinn for his or her purposes.[101] The Sunni and Shia sects of Islam typically forbid all use of magic. The Sufis within these two sects are much more ambiguous about its use as seen in the concept of "Barakah". If magic is understood in terms of Frazer's principle of contagion, then barakah is another term that can refer to magic. Barakah, variously defined as "blessing", or "divine power", is a quality one possesses rather than a category of activity. According to Muslim conception, the source of barakah is solely from Allah; it is Allah's direct blessing and intervention conferred upon special, pious Muslims.[102] Barakah has a heavily contagious quality in that one can transfer it by either inheritance or contact. Of all the humans who have ever lived, it is said that the Prophet Muhammad possessed the greatest amount of barakah and that he passed this to his male heirs through his daughter Fatima.[103] Barakah is not just limited to Muhammad's family line; any person who is considered holy may also possess it and transfer it to virtually anyone else. In Morocco, barakah transfer can be accomplished by sharing a piece of bread from which the possessor has eaten because saliva is the vessel of barakah in the human body.[104] However, the transference of barakah may also occur against the will of its possessor through other forms of physical contact such as hand shaking and kissing.[105] The contagious element of barakah is not limited to humans as it can be found in rocks, trees, water, and even in some animals, such as horses.[106] Just how the actor maintained obedience depended upon the benevolence or malevolence of his practice. Malevolent magicians operated by enslaving the spirits through offerings and deeds displeasing to Allah. Benevolent magicians, in contrast, obeyed and appeased Allah so that Allah exercised His will upon the spirits.[107] Al-Buni provides the process by which this practice occurs: First: the practitioner must be of utterly clean soul and garb. Second, when the proper angel is contacted, this angel will first get permission from God to go to the aid of the person who summoned him. Third: the practitioner "must not apply . . .[his power] except to that purpose [i.e. to achieve goals] which would please God."[108] However, not all Islamic groups accept this explanation of benevolent magic. The Salafis particularly view this as shirk, denying the unity of Allah. Consequently, the Salafis renounce appellations to intermediaries such as saints, angels, and djinn, and renounce magic, fortune-telling, and divination.[109] This particular brand of magic has also been condemned as forbidden by a fatwa issued by Al-Azhar University.[110] Further, Egyptian folklorist Hasan El-Shamy, warns that scholars have often been uncritical in their application of the term sihr to both malevolent and benevolent forms of magic. He argues that in Egypt, sihr only applies to sorcery. A person who practices benevolent magic "is not called saahir or sahhaar (sorcerer, witch), but is normally referred to as shaikh (or shaikha for a female), a title which is normally used to refer to a clergyman or a community notable or elder, and is equal to the English title: ‘Reverend.’"[111] [edit]Varieties of magical practice This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2006) The Magician, a Tarot card The best-known type of magical practice is the spell, a ritualistic formula intended to bring about a specific effect. Spells are often spoken or written or physically constructed using a particular set of ingredients. The failure of a spell to work may be attributed to many causes, such as a failure to follow the exact formula, to the general circumstances being unconducive, to a lack of magical ability, to a lack of willpower or to fraud. Another well-known magical practice is divination, which seeks to reveal information about the past, present or future. Varieties of divination include: Astrology, Augury, Cartomancy, Chiromancy, Dowsing, Fortune telling, Geomancy, I Ching, Omens, Scrying, Extispicy and Tarot reading. Necromancy is a practice which claims to involve the summoning of, and conversation with, spirits of the dead. This is sometimes done simply to commune with deceased loved ones; it can also be done to gain information from the spirits, as a type of divination; or to command the aid of those spirits in accomplishing some goal, as part of casting a spell. Varieties of magic can also be categorized by the techniques involved in their operation. One common means of categorization distinguishes between contagious magic and sympathetic magic, one or both of which may be employed in any magical work. Contagious magic involves the use of physical ingredients which were once in contact with the person or a thing which the practitioner intends to influence. Sympathetic magic involves the use of images or physical objects which in some way resemble the person or thing that one hopes to influence; voodoo dolls are an example. This dichotomy was proposed by Sir James Frazer's The Golden Bough. Other common categories given to magic include High and Low Magic (the appeal to divine powers or spirits respectively, with goals lofty or personal, according to the type of magic). Another distinction is between "manifest" and "subtle" magic. Subtle magic typically refers to magic of legend, gradually and sometimes intangibly altering the world, whereas manifest magic is magic that immediately appears as a result. Academic historian Richard Kieckhefer divides the category of spells into psychological magic, which seeks to influence other people's minds to do the magician's will, such as with a love spell, or illusionary magic, which seeks to conjure the manifestation of various wonders. A spell that conjures up a banquet, or that confers invisibility on the magician, would be examples of illusionary magic. Magic that causes objective physical change, in the manner of a miracle, is not accommodated in Kieckhefer's categories. [edit]Magical traditions Another method of classifying magic is by "traditions", which in this context typically refer to complexes or "currents" of magical belief and practice associated with various cultural groups and lineages of transmission. Some of these traditions are highly specific and culturally circumscribed. Others are more eclectic and syncretistic. These traditions can compass both divination and spells. When dealing with magic in terms of "traditions", it is a common misconception for outsiders to treat any religion in which clergy members make amulets and talismans for their congregants as a "tradition of magic", even though what is being named is actually an organized religion with clergy, laity, and an order of liturgical service. This is most notably the case when Voodoo, Palo, Santería, Taoism, Wicca, and other contemporary religions and folk religions are mischaracterized as forms of "magic", or even as "sorcery." Examples of magical, folk-magical, and religio-magical traditions include: Alchemy Animism Asatru Benedicaria Black Magic Bön Candomblé Jeje Ceremonial magic Chaos magic Druidry Feri Tradition Haitian Vodou Hermetic Qabalah Hermeticism Hoodoo Huna Kabbalah Louisiana Voodoo Nagual Obeah Onmyōdō Palo Pow-wow Psychonautics Quimbanda Reiki Santería Satanism Seid Setianism Sex Magic Shamanism Shinto Sigil Magic Tantra Taoism Thelema West African Vodun Witchcraft Wicca Zos Kia Cultus [edit]See also Anthropology portal Occult portal List of magical terms and traditions List of occult writers List of occultists Maleficium (sorcery) Magic (illusion) Magic in fiction Magic in the Greco-Roman world Mathemagician Occultism Psionics Sympathetic magic Witchcraft [edit]Notes ^ Webster's Dictionary, magic ^ Mauss, Tambiah, Malinowski (see below); Hutton, Ronald (1991). Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles. pp. 289–291, 335. ISBN 0631189467. ^ a b Mauss, Marcel (1972) A General Theory of Magic (R. Brain, Trans.). New York: Norton Library. (Original work published 1903). p. 24 ^ Cicero, Chic & Sandra Tabatha () The Essential Golden Dawn: An Introduction to High Magic. pp. 87–9. Regardie, Israel (2001) The Tree of Life: An Illustrated Study of Magic, St. Paul, Minnesota: Llewellyn, p. 17. Crowley, Aleister Magic Without Tears Ch. 83. ^ Everett Ferguson (1999). Christianity in relation to Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Taylor & Francis. pp. 254–. ISBN 9780815330691. Retrieved 15 August 2010. ^ Malinowski, Bronisław. Coral Gardens and Their Magic, "The Language of Magic and Gardening." Dover. New York (1935). ^ Tambiah, S. J. (June 1968). The Magical Power of Words. New Series, Vol. 3, No. 2. University of Cambridge. pp. 175–208. Retrieved accessdate=21 November 2010. ^ Austin, J. L. How to Do Things With Words. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1962). ^ Boyer, Pascal and Pierre Liénard. "Ritual behavior in obsessive and normal individuals." Association for Psychological Science (2008). ^ Tambiah, S. J. Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 52 ^ Tambiah, S. J. Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 45 ^ Tambiah, S. J. Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 59 ^ Lévi-Strauss, C. The Effectiveness of Symbols. Garden City, New York, 192 ^ Brown, Michael. Tsewa's Gift. Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 118 ^ Malinowski, B. K. (1935) Coral Gardens and their Magic, Dover, New York, 235 ^ Tambiah, S. J. (1968). "The Magical Power of Words". Man. Cambridge, UK. 3. 175-176 ^ Tambiah, S. J. (1968). "The Magical Power of Words". Man. Cambridge, UK. 3. 176 ^ Ogden, C. K. & Richards, I. A. (1923). The Meaning of Meaning. Discussed in Tambiah, S. J. (1968). "The Magical Power of Words". Man. Cambridge, UK. 3. 188 ^ Tambiah, S. J. (1968). "The Magical Power of Words". Man. Cambridge, UK. 3. 189 ^ Malinowski, B. K. (1935) Coral Gardens and their Magic, Dover, New York, 213 ^ a b Tambiah, S. J. (1968). The Magical Power of Words. Man. Cambridge, UK. 3. 182 ^ Tambiah, S. J. (1968). The Magical Power of Words. Man. Cambridge, UK. 3. 178 ^ Malinowski, B. K. (1935) Coral Gardens and their Magic, Dover, New York, 228 ^ Tambiah, S. J. (1968). The Magical Power of Words. Man. Cambridge, UK. 3. 179 ^ Mauss, Marcel (1972) A General Theory of Magic (R. Brain, Trans.). New York: Norton Library. (Original work published 1903). ISBN 0-393-00779-0. p. 25 ^ a b Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1976) Witchcraft, Oracles, and Magic among the Azande. Abridged Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Original Work Published 1937) ^ , Marcel (1972) A General Theory of Magic (R. Brain, Trans.). New York: Norton Library. (Original work published 1903). ISBN 0-393-00779-0. p. 25 ^ Glucklich, A. (1997). The End of Magic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 87 ^ Ginzburg, C. (1992) The Night Battles (J. & A. Tedeshci, Trans.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press ^ Connor, L., Asch, T., & Asch, P. (1983) "A Balinese trance seance ; Jero on Jero, a Balanese trance seance observed [videorecording]." Watertown, Massachusetts : Documentary Educational Resources ^ Mauss, Marcel (1972) A General Theory of Magic (R. Brain, Trans.). New York: Norton Library. (Original work published 1903). ISBN 0-393-00779-0. p. 41-44 ^ Mauss, Marcel (1972) A General Theory of Magic (R. Brain, Trans.). New York: Norton Library. (Original work published 1903). ISBN 0-393-00779-0. p. 26 ^ Glucklich, A. (1997). The End of Magic. Oxford: Oxford University Press ^ Mauss, Marcel (1972) A General Theory of Magic (R. Brain, Trans.). New York: Norton Library. (Original work published 1903). ISBN 0-393-00779-0. p. 33, 40 ^ Pócs, Éva (1999). Between the Living and the Dead: A perspective on Witches and Seers in the Early Modern Age. Budapest: Central European University Press. pp. 9–12. ISBN 963-9116-19-X. ^ Crawford, J. R. (1967) Witchcraft and Sorcery in Rhodesia pp. 5, 8, 73; Appendix II. ^ Pócs (1999) pp. 10–11. ^ Many English and Scottish 'witches' were cunning folk whose fairy familiars were interpreted as demons (Wilby, Emma 2005 Cunning Folk and Familiar Spirits p. 123; Macfarlane, A. 1970 Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England p. 127; Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. 2001 Witchcraft in Europe and the New World, 1400–1800 p. 27); many French devins-guerisseurs were accused of witchcraft (E. William Monter 1976 Witchcraft in France and Switzerland ch. 7); over half the accused witches in Hungary seem to have been healers (Pócs 1999 p. 12); persisting pagan religion and magic was one of the prime targets of witchcraft accusations in Scandinavia from the 1600s (Maxwell-Stuart 2001 pp. 78–80); in Russia most trials were aimed at eradicating popular magical practices amongst a barely Christianised population (Maxwell-Stuart 2001 83–4); and until the 18th century in Transylvania practitioners of traditional healing and fertility magic were the majority of accused witches (Maxwell-Stuart 2001 p. 85). ^ Macfarlane 1970 p. 130; also Appendix 2. ^ Winthrop, Robert H. Dictionary of concepts in cultural anthropology. New York: Greenwood P, 1991. ^ Dictionary of anthropology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997. ^ Feltham, Brian (2011). "Magic and Practical Agency", in Rational Magic. Oxford: Fisher Imprints. ISBN 1848880618. ^ Hendrix, Scott E. (2011). Preface to Rational Magic: Cultural and Historical Studies in Magic. Oxford: Fisher Imprints. ISBN 1848880618. ^ magic in ancient India (page 51). ^ Freud (1950, 83), quoting Frazer (1911, 1, 420). ^ Thomas (1910–11),[page needed] ^ Freud (1950, 83). ^ Freud (1950, 84). ^ Mauss, Marcel (1972) A General Theory of Magic (R. Brain, Trans.). New York: Norton Library. (Original work published 1903). ISBN 0-393-00779-0 ^ Mauss, Marcel (1972) A General Theory of Magic (R. Brain, Trans.). New York: Norton Library. (Original work published 1903). p. 92 ^ Tambiah, S. J. (1990). Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 2 ^ Tambiah, S. J. (1990). Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 8 ^ Spell Casters Certified Association, California, January 18, 1997. ^ Tambiah, S. J. (1990). Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 19 ^ Tambiah, S. J. (1990). Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 28 ^ Maliowski, Bronisław. Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays. USA: Anchor Books, 1954.(pg 17) ^ Maliowski, Bronisław. Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays. USA: Anchor Books, 1954. (pg 86) ^ Maliowski, Bronisław. Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays. USA: Anchor Books, 1954. (pg 90) ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984 ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. p. 132 ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. p. 135 ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. p. 140 ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. p. 143 ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. p. 144 ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. p. 146 ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. p. 147 ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. p. 148 ^ Horton, R. (1967) "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Africa 37(1-2), 50-71, 155-187. Rpt. as "African Traditional Thought and Western Science." Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. p. 153 ^ Asante, M.K.; Mazama, Ama (2009). "Heka". Encyclopedia of African Religion. II. pp. 342–343. ISBN 9781412936361. LCCN 2008027578. ^ Pinch, Dr Geraldine (15 October 2010). "Ancient Egyptian Magic". BBC. Retrieved 21 November 2010. ^ Davies (2009:8) ^ Bengt Ankarloo; Stuart Clark (1999). Witchcraft and magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 231–. ISBN 9780812217056. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ Hutton (2003),[page needed] ^ Jan Willem Drijvers; Edward David Hunt (1999). The late Roman world and its historian: interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus. Psychology Press. pp. 208–. ISBN 9780415202718. Retrieved 22 August 2010. ^ Waite (1913),[page needed] ^ a b Kiekhefer (1998),[page needed] ^ Sibly M.D., Ebenezer (1822). A New and Complete Illustration of the Celestial Science of Astrology; or, The Art of Foretelling Future Events and Contingencies. vol. 2 part 4 (12 ed.). pp. 1116–1117. ^ a b Sibly (1822) p.1118 ^ Sibly (1822) p.1119 ^ Sibly (1822) p.1120 ^ Peterson, Joseph H. (April 2001). "A New and Complete Illustration of the Occult Sciences — Book 4". Esoteric Archives. Retrieved 12 April 2011. ^ Greer (1996),[page needed] ^ a b Hutton (2001),[page needed] ^ DR Congo Pygmies 'exterminated' ^ Pygmies struggle to survive ^ Penis theft panic hits city.., Reuters ^ 7 killed in Ghana over 'penis-snatching' episodes, CNN, January 18, 1997. ^ Hyde, George E. (1968). Lottinville, Savoie. ed. Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 207, 213, 214, 221, 239, 240, 303. ISBN 0806115777, ISBN 978-0-8061-1577-1. ^ Monnett, John H. (1992). The Battle of Beecher Island and the Indian War of 1867–1869. University Press of Colorado. pp. 46–48. ISBN 0-87081-347-1. ^ Aghoris, ABC ^ Adler (1987),[page needed] ^ Journal of the American Medical Association "The psychology of chess". JAMA, October 20, 2004; 292: 1900 ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, English version, section 3.2.1.1.3 ^ "Magic" in Oxford Islamic Studies Online ^ The Meaning of the Holy Qur’an. Translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali. Amana Publications. 2001. Ali supports this assumption in his commentary on this passage ". . . Solomon dealt in no arts of evil" (Q 2:102, note 103) ^ Gibb, H.A.R. and J.H. Kramerst. 1965. Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam. Ithaca: Cornell. pp 523-524. The djinn are intelligent beings, or spirits, created by Allah from fire, as opposed to humans and angels who are created from clay and light (Q 15:26-27 ; 55:15). ^ Ali, Q 2:102, note 103. ^ Gibb, p 545. ^ Gibb, p 546. ^ This is also a subcategory of Muslim magic called simiya, often translated as natural magic. For a complete discussion of simiya, see ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: an Introduction to History. Franz Rosenthal, translator. 2nd edition, 1967. Vol. 3 pp 171-227. ^ El-Shamy, Hasan. Unpublished Manuscript. Folk Beliefs and Practices in Egypt. p. 28. ^ Westermarck, Edward Alexander. 1926. Ritual and Belief in Morocco. London: Macmillan. p. 35 ^ Westermarck, p. 36. Though Westermarck did not elaborate on this statement, the emphasis on the male lineage through Fatima appears to be of Sufi or Shi’ia origin rather than Sunni. ^ Westermarck, pp. 41-93. ^ Westermarck, pp. 42-43. ^ Westermarck, p. 97. ^ al-Nadim, Muhammad ibn Ishaq. The Fihrist of al-Nadim. Edited and translated by Bayard Dodge. New York: Columbia, 1970. pp. 725-726. ^ El-Shamy. Folk Beliefs and Practices in Egypt. p. 34. ^ Doumato, Eleanor Abdella. 2000 Getting God's Ear: Women, Islam, and Healing in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf. New York: Columbia. p. 34. ^ El-Shamy. Personal communication ^ El-Shamy. Folk Beliefs and Practices in Egypt. p. 33. [edit]Bibliography Adler, Margot (1987). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today. 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