Qigong

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For the artist, see Qigong (artist).
Qigong
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Qigong practitioners at World Tai Chi and Qigong Day event in Manhattan.
Simplified Chinese气功
Traditional Chinese氣功
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Qigong, chi kung, or chi gung (simplified Chinese: 气功; traditional Chinese: 氣功;pinyin: qìgōng; Wade–Giles: chi4 gong1; literally "Life Energy Cultivation") is a practice of aligning breath, movement, and awareness for exercise, healing, and meditation.[1]With roots in Chinese medicine, martial arts, and philosophy, qigong is traditionally viewed as a practice to cultivate and balance qi (chi) or what has been translated as "intrinsic life energy".[2] It is generally accepted that Qigong exercises have three components: a posture (whether moving or stationary) 調身, breathing techniques 調息, and mental focus on guiding qi through the body 調心. The prerequisite is a calm relaxing state of mind. [3] Qigong is now practiced throughout China and worldwide, and is considered by some to be exercise, and by others to be a type of alternative medicineor meditative practice.[4] From a philosophical perspective qigong is believed to help develop human potential, allow access to higher realms of awareness, and awaken one's "true nature".[5]
Possible health benefits of qigong have been studied in various medical conditions. Evidence of effectiveness is inconclusive due to the poor quality of the clinical trials.[6]

Qigong basics[edit]

Etymology[edit]

Main article: Qi
Qigong (Pinyin), ch'i kung (Wade-Giles), and chi gung (Yale) are English words for two Chinese characters: qì (氣) and gōng (功).
Qi (or chi) is usually translated as life energy, lifeforce, or energy flow, and definitions often involve breath, air, gas, or relationship between matter, energy, and spirit.[7] Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. Gong (orkung) is often translated as cultivation or work, and definitions include practice, skill, mastery, merit, achievement, service, result, or accomplishment, and is often used to mean gongfu (kung fu) in the traditional sense of achievement through great effort. (see MDBG dictionary entry) The two words are combined to describe systems to cultivate and balance life energy, especially for health.[1]
Although the term qigong (氣功) has been traced back to Taoist literature of the early Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), the term qigong as currently used was promoted in the late 1940s through the 1950s to refer to a broad range of Chinese self-cultivation exercises, and to emphasize health and scientific approaches, while de-emphasizing spiritual practices, mysticism, and elite lineages.[8][9][10]

History[edit]

Main article: Qigong history
With roots in ancient Chinese culture dating back more than 4,000 years, a wide variety of qigong forms have developed within different segments of Chinese society:[11] in traditional Chinese medicine for preventive and curative functions,[12] in Confucianism to promote longevity and improve moral character,[1] in Taoism and Buddhism as part of meditative practice,[5] and in Chinese martial arts to enhance fighting abilities.[9][13] Contemporary qigong blends diverse and sometimes disparate traditions, in particular the Taoist meditative practice of "internal alchemy" (Neidan 內丹术), the ancient meditative practices of "circulating qi" (Xing qi 行氣) and "standing meditation" (Zhan zhuang 站桩), and the slow gymnastic breathing exercise of "guiding and pulling" (Tao yin 導引). Traditionally, knowledge about qigong was passed from adept master to student in elite unbroken lineages, typically with secretive and esoteric traditions of training and oral-mind transmission.[14]
Starting in the late 1940s and the 1950s, the mainland Chinese government tried to integrate disparate qigong approaches into one coherent system, with the intention of establishing a firm scientific basis for qigong practice. In 1949, Liu Guizhen established the name "Qigong" to refer to the system of life preserving exercises that he and his associates developed. Prior to this time, the life preserving energy exercises while practiced were referred to as Dao-yin. [15] This attempt is considered by some sinologists as the start of the modern or scientific interpretation of qigong.[16][17][18] During the Great Leap Forward (1958–1963) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), qigong, along with other traditional Chinese medicine, was encouraged in state-run rehabilitation centers and spread to universities and hospitals, but was under tight control with limited access among the general public. After the Cultural Revolution, qigong, along with t'ai chi, was popularized as daily morning exercise practiced en masse throughout China.
Popularity of qigong grew rapidly during the Deng and Jiang eras of the 1970s through 1990s, with estimates of between 60 and 200 million practitioners throughout China. In 1985, the state-run "National Qigong Science and Research Organization" was established to regulate all of the nation's qigong denominations.[19] In 1999, in response to widespread revival of old traditions of spirituality, morality, and mysticism, the Chinese government took measures to enforce control of public qigong practice, including banning groups such as Zhong Gong and Falun Gong.[20][21]
Through the forces of migration of the Chinese diaspora, tourism in China, and globalization, the practice of qigong spread from the Chinese community to the world. Today, millions of people around the world practice qigong and believe in the benefits of qigong to varying degrees. Similar to its historical origin, those interested in qigong come from diverse backgrounds and practice it for different reasons, including for exercise, recreation, preventive medicine, self-healing, self-cultivation, meditation, and martial arts training.

Training methods[edit]

Qigong comprises breathing, physical, and mental training methods based on Chinese philosophy.[22] While implementation details vary, all qigong forms can be characterized as a mix of four types of training: dynamic, static, meditative, and activities requiring external aids.
  • Dynamic training
involves fluid movement, usually carefully choreographed, coordinated with breath and awareness. Examples include the slow stylized movements of T'ai chi ch'uan, Baguazhang, and Xing yi.[23] Other examples include graceful movement that mimics the motion of animals in Five Animals,[24] White Crane,[25] and Wild Goose (Dayan) Qigong.[26][27]
  • Static training
involves holding postures for sustained periods of time.[28] In some cases this bears resemblance to the practice of Yoga and its continuation in the Buddhist tradition.[29] For example Yiquan, a Chinese martial art derived from xingyiquan, emphasizes static stance training.[30] In another example, the healing form Eight Pieces of Brocade (Baduanjin qigong) is based on a series of static postures.[31]
  • Meditative training
utilizes breath awareness, visualization, mantra, and focus on philosophical concepts such as qi circulation.[32] For example, in the Confucius scholar tradition meditation is focused on humanity and virtue, with the aim of self-enlightenment. In various Buddhist traditions, the aim is to still the mind, either through outward focus, for example on a place, or through inward focus on the breath, a mantra, a koan, emptiness, or the idea of the eternal. In Taoist and traditional Chinese medicine practice, the meditative focus is on cultivating qi in dantian energy centers and balancing qi flow in meridian and other pathways.[11]
  • Use of external agents
Many systems of qigong training include the use of external agents such as ingestion of herbs, massage, physical manipulation, or interaction with other living organisms.[5] For example, specialized food and drinks are used in some medical and Taoist forms, whereas massage and body manipulation are sometimes used in martial arts forms. In some medical systems a qigong master uses non-contact treatment, purportedly guiding qi through his or her own body into the body of another person.[33]

Qi Sensation[edit]

Eight typical sensations have been observed by qigong practitioners. [34]
  1. Motion – involuntary body movement or tingling sensation in muscle
  2. Itch – body becoming itchy
  3. Lightness – floating feeling
  4. Heaviness – the feeling of the body becoming very heavy or the feeling that a force is exerted on the body
  5. Cold – cold feeling
  6. Warm – warm feeling
  7. Rough – the feeling that the body is in contact with rough surfaces
  8. Smooth – the feeling that the body is in contact with smooth surfaces
The acquiring time, the strength and extent of the feeling on the body as well as the exact sensation vary widely between individuals. The "mind" part of qigong is the mental guiding of qi sensation (i.e. qi) through the body. [35] All qigong forms unanimously suggest that one should not be afraid of or excited by these feelings. They are just normal sensations during qigong practice. Out of control qi sensation is known as qigong deviation; it is considered undesirable and potentially dangerous. [36]

Application[edit]

People practice qigong for many different reasons, including for exercise and recreation, prevention and self-healing, meditation and self-cultivation, and training for martial arts.
Alternative medical systems
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Anthroposophic medicine
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Mind–body interventions
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Energy therapies

Health[edit]

As a form of gentle exercise, qigong is composed of movements that are typically repeated, strengthening and stretching the body, increasing fluid movement (blood, synovial, and lymph), enhancing balance and proprioception, and building awareness of how the body moves through space.[37] In recent years a large number of books and videos have been published that focus primarily on qigong as exercise and associated health benefits. Practitioners range from athletes to the physically challenged. Because it is low impact and can be done lying, sitting, or standing, qigong is accessible for disabled persons, seniors, and people recovering from injuries.
As a healing art, qigong practitioners focus on prevention and self-healing, traditionally viewed as balancing the body's energy meridians and enhancing the intrinsic capacity of the body to heal.[12]Qigong has been used extensively in China as part of traditional Chinese medicine, and is included in the curriculum of Chinese Universities.[38] Qigong is now recognized as a form of complementary andalternative medicine.[39][40]
There are three main forms of qigong used to complement medical treatment: 1) Qigong exercises (also called "internal Qigong") performed by individuals for general health or treatment of disease, 2) Qigong massage by a trained Qigong practitioner to treat specific injuries and illnesses (e.g. autism);[41] and 3) External qigong in which a trained practitioner focuses healing energy on patients without touching them.[42]

Meditation and self-cultivation[edit]

Qigong is practiced for meditation and self-cultivation as part of various philosophical and spiritual traditions. As meditation, qigong is a means to still the mind and enter a state of consciousness that brings serenity, clarity, and bliss.[5] Many practitioners find qigong, with its gentle focused movement, to be more accessible than seated meditation.[4]
Qigong for self-cultivation can be classified in terms of traditional Chinese philosophy:
Qigong provides a means to become a Junzi (君子) through awareness of morality.[43][44]
Qigong provides a way to achieve longevity and spiritual enlightenment,[45] as well as a closer connection to the natural world.[46]
Qigong is part of a spiritual path that leads to spiritual enlightenment or Buddhahood.[47]

Martial arts training[edit]

The practice of qigong is an important component in both internal and external style Chinese martial arts.[5] Focus on qi is considered to be a source of power as well as the foundation of the internal style of martial arts (Neijia). T'ai chi ch'uan, Xing yi, and Baguazhangare representative of the types of Chinese martial arts that rely on the concept of qi as the foundation. [48] Extraordinary feats of martial arts prowess, such as the ability to withstand heavy strikes (Iron Shirt, 鐵衫) [49] and the ability to break hard objects (Iron Palm, 铁掌) [50] [51] are abilities attributed to qigong training.

Forms[edit]

There are numerous qigong forms. 75 ancient forms that can be found in ancient literature and also 56 common or contemporary form have been described in a qigong compendium. [52] The list is by no means exhaustive. Many contemporary forms were developed by people who had recovered from their illness after qigong practice.
In 2003, the Chinese Health Qigong Association officially recognized four health qigong forms:[53]
In 2010, the Chinese Health Qigong Association officially recognized five additional health qigong forms:[59]
  • Tai Chi Yang Sheng Zhang (太极养生杖): a tai chi form from the stick tradition.
  • Shi Er Duan Jin (十二段锦): seated exercises to strengthen the neck, shoulders, waist, and legs.
  • Daoyin Yang Sheng Gong Shi Er Fa (导引养生功十二法): 12 routines from Daoyin tradition of guiding and pulling qi.
  • Mawangdui Daoyin (马王堆导引术): guiding qi along the meridians with synchronous movement and awareness.
  • Da Wu (大舞): choreographed exercises to lubricate joints and guide qi.
Other commonly practiced qigong styles and forms include the following:

Theory[edit]

Traditional view[edit]

Main article: Qi
Qigong practitioners in Brazil
Traditionally, the central focus of qigong practice is to cultivate and balance qi as it affects mind (心), body (身), and spirit (靈).[11][67] In Chinese philosophy, the concept of qi as a form of pervasive life energy includes original qi that a person has at birth, and qi a person acquires from air, water, food, sunlight, and interaction with the environment.[68][69] A person is believed to become ill or die when qi becomes diminished or unbalanced. Health is believed to be returned by rebuilding qi, eliminating qi blockages, and correcting qi imbalances.
Main article: Traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine focuses on tracing and correcting underlying disharmony, in terms of deficiency and excess, using the complementary and opposing forces of yin and yang, to create a balanced flow of qi. Qi is believed to be cultivated and stored in three main dantian energy centers and to travel through the body along twelve main meridians, with numerous smaller branches and tributaries. The main meridians correspond to twelve main organs (Zàng fǔ). Qi is balanced in terms of yin and yang in the context of the traditional system of Five Phases (Wu xing 五行).[11][12] These traditional concepts do not translate readily to modern science and medicine.

Principles[edit]

Whether viewed from the perspective of exercise, health, philosophy, or martial arts training, several main principles emerge concerning the practice of qigong:[1][37][4]
  • Intentional movement: careful, flowing balanced style
  • Rhythmic breathing: slow, deep, coordinated with fluid movement
  • Awareness: calm, focused meditative state
  • Visualization: of qi flow, philosophical tenets, aesthetics
Additional principles:
  • Softness: soft gaze, expressionless face
  • Solid Stance: firm footing, erect spine
  • Relaxation: relaxed muscles, slightly bent joints
  • Balance and Counterbalance: motion over the center of gravity
Advanced goals:
  • Equanimity: more fluid, more relaxed
  • Tranquility: empty mind, high awareness
  • Stillness: smaller and smaller movements, eventually to complete stillness
The most advanced practice is generally considered to be with little or no motion.

Contemporary view[edit]

Similar to the subject of efficacy of Traditional Chinese medicine, the chasm between the Eastern tradition of qi and the Western scientific viewpoints is not insurmountable if the analysis is limited to the effect of qigong practice on biological processes without demanding a material interpretation of qi. Some have argued for an interpretation of qi as a metaphor for biological processes [70][71]or as part of the field of energy medicine.[72]

Health benefits[edit]

Claims and medical research[edit]

Qigong has been purported to enhance health and well-being with many benefits, including improving cardiovascular function, healing specific acute diseases, and increasing longevity.[1] Many of these claims are supported only by anecdotal evidence,traditional lore, and teachings in master/student lineages.[14] Research examining health benefits of qigong is increasing, but there is little financial incentive to support research and still only a limited number of studies meet accepted medical and scientific standards of randomized controlled trials (RCT).[73] Overall, the evidence for the health effects for qigong has been largely inconclusive or contradictory, with almost all evidence based on poor quality data, making any firm conclusions impossible to reach.[6]

Individual reviews[edit]

A systematic review of the effect of qigong exercises on hypertension found that the available studies were encouraging for the exercises to lower systolic blood pressure. However, an analysis of the studies that found these results showed that they were of relatively poor quality, with the lack of blinding raising the possibility of bias in the results, so no definitive conclusions could be reached.[74]
A systematic review on the effect of qigong exercises on reducing pain concluded that "the existing trial evidence is not convincing enough to suggest that internal qigong is an effective modality for pain management." [75] Another systematic review which focused on external qigong and its effect on pain, concluded "that evidence for the effectiveness of external qigong is encouraging, though further studies are warranted" due to the small number of studies and participants involved which precluded any firm conclusions about the specific effects of qigong on pain.[76]
A systematic review of the effect of qigong exercises on cancer treatment concluded "the effectiveness of qigong in cancer care is not yet supported by the evidence from rigorous clinical trials."[77] A separate systematic review that looked at the effects of qigong exercises on various physiological or psychological outcomes found that the available studies were poorly designed, with a high of bias in the results. Therefore, the authors concluded, "Due to limited number of RCTs in the field and methodological problems and high risk of bias in the included studies, it is still too early to reach a conclusion about the efficacy and the effectiveness of qigong exercise as a form of health practice adopted by the cancer patients during their curative, palliative, and rehabilitative phases of the cancer journey."[78]
A 2010 literature review of qigong and tai chi exercises found positive results for qigong and tai chi in nine categories, including bone density, cardiopulmonary effects, physical function, falls and related risk factors, quality of life, self efficacy, patient reported outcomes, psychological symptoms, and immune function and inflammation. Studies that compared qigong and tai chi with other physical exercises found similar effects, and greatest effects were found in studies that compared qigong and tai chi to effects in low activity or inactive participants. Unlike the above systematic reviews, this study did not assess for the quality of the underlying trials.[73]

Mental health[edit]

Many claims have been made that qigong can benefit or ameliorate mental health conditions,[73][79] including improved mood, decreased stress reaction, and decreased anxiety and depression. Most medical studies have only examined psychological factors as secondary goals, however various studies have shown significant benefits such as decrease in cortisol levels, a chemical hormone produced by the body to manage stress.[73]
There are also claims that in some cases, in particular with improper teaching or improper technique, the practice of qigong can result in a mental condition known as Zou huo ru mo (走火入魔) or "qigong deviation" (氣功偏差), which, among other symptoms, can lead to a perception of an uncontrolled flow of qi in the body during or after practice.[80][81][36]
Main article: Zou huo ru mo (medicine)

Controversy[edit]

There is little controversy concerning the benefit of qigong when the definition of qigong is limited to a series of physical movements and a set of relaxation exercises. Conflict has arisen when the claims made by proponents of qigong border on the supernatural.[8][82]
Some researchers have labeled the subject matter of qigong as a pseudoscience.[83] In addition, some claim that the origin and nature of qigong practice has led to misconceptions and misuses,[84] including psychiatric problems[18] and the formation of cults[8]
Skepticism towards qigong is also applied to the field of Traditional Chinese medicine, and extends to the broader subject ofalternative medicine. The basic problem is that the information available from these fields often does not fit scientific acceptability or medical interpretation, and is difficult to replicate using double-blind control studies. [83][84][85][86] [87] [88] Skeptics contend that most of the benefits derived from Alternative medicine are, at best, derived from a placebo effect.[89] [90]
The main arguments from the view of skeptics against the correlation between qigong practices and health-related results are:
  • The existence of qi, or any form of vitalism, has not been independently verified in an experimental setting. Such a concept is not recognized in the biological sciences.[91]
  • Demonstrations in martial arts such as breaking hard objects with strikes can be fully explained using physics, without reference to the concept of qi.[92][93]
  • Reported claims of supernatural abilities appear to be tricks more suited to magic shows than to any genuine scientific discipline.[8][94][95][96][97][98]
  • Personal benefits for some qigong masters might have provided them with an incentive to exaggerate their claims.[8]

Shifting views[edit]

Over the centuries, a diverse spectrum of qigong forms developed in different segments of Chinese society.[9] Traditionally, qigong training has been called esoteric and secretive, with knowledge passed from adept master to student in lineages that maintain their own unique detailed interpretations and methods.[14] Although the practice of qigong was prohibited during the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, it was once again allowed in 1976 with an emphasis on meditative practice by scholars and gymnastic or dynamic practice by the working masses.[99]  Disparate approaches to qigong were merged as part of the cultural change that occurred as China modernized.[16]  In contemporary China, the emphasis of qigong practice has shifted away from traditional philosophy, spiritual attainment, and folklore, and increasingly to health benefits, traditional medicine and martial arts applications, and a scientific perspective.[8][10]
Qigong is now practiced by millions worldwide, primarily for its health benefits, though many practitioners have also adopted traditional philosophical, medical, or martial arts perspectives, and even use the long history of qigong as evidence of its effectiveness.[4][11]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  2. Jump up^ Yang, Jwing-Ming (1987). Chi Kung: health & martial arts. Yang's Martial Arts Association. ISBN 0-940871-00-9.
  3. Jump up^ Yang, Bai Long 杨柏龙 (2006). A Standard Guide on Qigong 气功标准教程. Beijing Sport University Press 北京体育大学出版社.ISBN 9787811005400.
  4. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Garripoli, Garri (1999). Qigong: Essence of the Healing Dance. HCI. ISBN 1-55874-674-9.
  5. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Liang, Shou-Yu; Wen-Ching Wu, Denise Breiter-Wu (1997). Qigong Empowerment: A Guide to Medical, Taoist, Buddhist, and Wushu Energy Cultivation. Way of the Dragon Pub. ISBN 1-889659-02-9.
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b Lee MS, Oh B, Ernst E (2011). "Qigong for healthcare: an overview of systematic reviews". JRSM Short Rep 2 (2): 7.doi:10.1258/shorts.2010.010091. PMC 3046559. PMID 21369525.
  7. Jump up^ Ho, Peng Yoke (Oct 2000). Li, Qi, and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41445-0.
  8. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Palmer, David A. (2007). Qigong fever: body, science, and utopia in China. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-14066-5.
  9. ^ Jump up to:a b c YeYoung, Bing. "Origins of Qi Gong". YeYoung Culture Studies: Sacramento, CA (http://literati-tradition.com). Retrieved 14 October 2011.
  10. ^ Jump up to:a b Ownby, David (2008). Falun Gong and the future of China. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532905-6.
  11. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Yang, Jwing-Ming. (1989). The root of Chinese Chi kung: the secrets of Chi kung training. Yang's Martial Arts Association.ISBN 0-940871-07-6.
  12. ^ Jump up to:a b c Holland, Alex (2000). Voices of Qi: An Introductory Guide to Traditional Chinese Medicine. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 1-55643-326-3.
  13. Jump up^ Yang, Jwing-Ming (1998). Qigong for health and martial arts: exercises and meditation. YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 1-886969-57-4.
  14. ^ Jump up to:a b c YeYoung, Bing. "Lineage Transmission of Qi Gong". YeYoung Culture Studies: Sacramento, CA (http://literati-tradition.com). Retrieved 7 December 2011.
  15. Jump up^ Voigt, John (Autumn). "The Man Who Invented "Qigong"". Qi: The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health & Fitness 23 (3): 28 –33.
  16. ^ Jump up to:a b Otehode, Utiraruto (2009). "The Creation and Reemergence of Qigong in China". In Ashiwa, Yoshiko; Wank, David L. Making religion, making the state: the politics of religion in modern China. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. pp. 241–265. ISBN 978-0-8047-5842-0.
  17. Jump up^ Despeux, C. (1997). Le qigong, une expression de la modernité Chinoise. In J. Gernet & M. Kalinowski (eds.), En suivant la Voie Royale: Mélanges en homage à Léon Vandermeersch. École Française d'Extrême-Orient. pp. 267–281.
  18. ^ Jump up to:a b Chen, Nancy N. (2003). Breathing Spaces: Qigong, Psychiatry, and Healing in China. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12804-5.
  19. Jump up^ Palmer, David A. (2007). Qigong fever: body, science, and utopia in China. Columbia University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0-231-14066-5.
  20. Jump up^ Ownby, David (2008). Falun Gong and the future of China. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 161–174. ISBN 978-0-19-532905-6.
  21. Jump up^ Penny, Benjamin (1993). "Qigong, Daoism and Science: some contexts for the qigong boom". In Lee, M.; Syrokomla-Stefanowska, A.D.Modernisation of the Chinese Past. Sydney: Wild Peony. pp. 166–179. ISBN 978-0-86758-658-9.
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  24. Jump up^ Fick, Franklin (2005). Five Animal Frolics Qi Gong: Crane and Bear Exercises. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-4116-2776-5.
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  29. Jump up^ Dumoulin, Heinrich; Heisig, James W.; McRae, John M.; Knitter, Paul F. (2005). Zen Buddhism: a history. Bloomington, Ind.: World Wisdom. ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1.
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  34. Jump up^ Ma Ji Ren 馬濟人 (1992). Practical Qigong for Traditional Chinese Medicine 實用中醫氣功學. Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers 上海科学枝术出版社. p. 466. ISBN 7532327205.
  35. Jump up^ Ma Ji Ren 馬濟人 (1992). Practical Qigong for Traditional Chinese Medicine 實用中醫氣功學. Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers 上海科学枝术出版社. pp. 195–202. ISBN 7532327205.
  36. ^ Jump up to:a b Chen, Nancy N. (2003). "Chapter 4. Qiqong Deviation or Psychosis". Breathing spaces: qigong, psychiatry, and healing in China. Columbia University Press. pp. 77–107. ISBN 0-231-12804-5.
  37. ^ Jump up to:a b Frantzis, Bruce Kumar (2008). The Chi Revolution: Harnessing the Healing Power of Your Life Force. Blue Snake Books. ISBN 1-58394-193-2.
  38. Jump up^ Douglas Wengell, Nathen Gabriel (2008). Educational Opportunities in Integrative Medicine. The Hunter Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-9776552-4-3.
  39. Jump up^ Goldstein, Michael J. (1999). Alternative Health Care. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-56639-678-3.
  40. Jump up^ Kligler, Benjamin; Roberta A. Lee (2004). Integrative medicine: principles for practice. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-140239-X.
  41. Jump up^ Silva, L., Schalock, M., Ayres, R., Bunse, C., & Budden, S. (2009). Qigong Massage Treatment for Sensory and Self-Regulation Problems in Young Children with Autism: A Randomized Controlled Trial. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 63, 423-432
  42. Jump up^ Lee, M., Pittler, M., Ernst, E. (2007). External qigong for pain conditions: A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. The Journal of Pain, 8(11):827-831.
  43. Jump up^ Hook, Mary, Van; Hugen, Beryl; Aguilar, Marian Angela (2001). Spirituality within religious traditions in social work practice. Australia: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-534-58419-1.
  44. Jump up^ Richey, Jeffrey Edward (2008). Teaching Confucianism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-531160-0.
  45. Jump up^ Luk, C.; Chen Chao, Pi; Lu, Kʻuan Yü (1984). Taoist yoga: alchemy and immortality: a translation, with introduction and notes, of The secrets of cultivating nature and eternal life (Hsin ming fa chueh ming chih). York Beach, Me.: Samuel Weiser. ISBN 978-0-87728-067-5.
  46. Jump up^ Réquéna, Yves (1996). Chi Kung: The Chinese Art of Mastering Energy. Healing Arts Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0892816392.
  47. Jump up^ Bucknell, Roderick S.; Stuart-Fox, Martin (1993). The twilight language: explorations in Buddhist meditation and symbolism. London: Curzon Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-0234-3.
  48. Jump up^ Li, Lu; Yun, Zhang (2006). The Combat Techniques of Tai Ji, Xing Yi, and Ba Gua : Principles and Practices of Internal Martial Arts. Frog, Ltd./Blue Snake Books. ISBN 978-1-58394-145-4.
  49. Jump up^ Chia, Mantak (2006). Iron Shirt Chi Kung. Destiny Books. ISBN 978-1-59477-104-0.
  50. Jump up^ Lee, Ying-Arng. (1973). Iron Palm in 100 days. Wehman Bros. Inc.
  51. Jump up^ Chao, H.C. (1981). Complete iron palm training for self defense. Unitrade Company.
  52. Jump up^ Ma Ji Ren 馬濟人 (1992). Practical Qigong for Traditional Chinese Medicine 實用中醫氣功學. Shanghai Scientific and Technical Publishers 上海科学枝术出版社. pp. 203–433. ISBN 7532327205.
  53. Jump up^ Chinese Health Qigong Association. "Chinese Health QiGong Association" (in Eng). Beijing. Retrieved 2005-10-20.
  54. Jump up^ Yang, Jwing-Ming (2000). Qigong, The Secret of Youth. YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 978-1-886969-84-1.
  55. Jump up^ Chia, Mantak; Chia, Maneewan (1988). Bone marrow nei kung: Taoist way to improve your health by rejuvenating your bone marrow and blood. Huntington, N.Y.: Healing Tao Books. ISBN 978-0-935621-17-4.
  56. Jump up^ Wushu Association, Chinese (2008). Wu Qin Xi: Five Animals Qigong Exercises (Chinese Health Qigong). Singing Dragon. ISBN 978-1-84819-007-8.
  57. Jump up^ Wushu Association, Chinese. Liu Zi Jue: Six Sounds Approach to Qigong Breathing Exercises (Chinese Health Qigong). Singing Dragon. ISBN 978-1-84819-006-1.
  58. Jump up^ Wushu Association, Chinese (2008). Ba Duan Jin: Eight-section Qigong Exercises (Chinese Health Qigong). Singing Dragon.ISBN 978-1-84819-005-4.
  59. Jump up^ Chinese Health Qigong Association. "Health Qigong Management Center introduced five sets of new exercises of Health Qigong" (in Eng). Beijing. Retrieved 2012-03-12.
  60. Jump up^ Xiang, Zhao (1997). Chinese Soaring Crane Qigong. Qigong Association of America.
  61. Jump up^ Gu, Mingtong (2011). Wisdom Healing (Zhineng) Qigong. Petaluma, CA: The Chi Center. pp. 61–80. ISBN 978-0-9835043-0-6.
  62. Jump up^ Ou, Wen wei (1999). Pan Gu Mystical Qigong. Unique Publications. ISBN 978-1-892515-06-3.
  63. Jump up^ Yu, Wen Mei (1998). Chi Kung: Taoist Secrets of Fitness and Longevity. Unique Publications. ISBN 978-0-86568-165-1.
  64. Jump up^ Frantzis, Bruce (2010). Dragon and Tiger Medical Qigong: A Miracle Health System for Developing Chi. North Atlantic Books.ISBN 978-1-55643-921-6.
  65. Jump up^ Elliott, Stephen Bennett (2010). Wuji Qi Gong And The Secret Of Immortality. Coherence Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9786399-4-5.
  66. Jump up^ Lakshmana, Arjuna (2008). Enlightenment Qigong. Centre Namasté de Teràpies Alternatives, Barcelona.
  67. Jump up^ Frantzis, Bruce Kumar (1995). Opening the Energy Gates of Your Body (The Tao of Energy Enhancement). North Atlantic Books.ISBN 978-1-55643-164-7.
  68. Jump up^ Liu, JeeLoo. An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy: From Ancient Philosophy to Chinese Buddhism. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2949-7.
  69. Jump up^ Li, Chenyang (1999). The Tao encounters the West: explorations in comparative philosophy. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4135-0.
  70. Jump up^ Milburn, Michael A. (2001). The future of healing: exploring the parallels of Eastern and Western medicine. Freedom, Calif.: Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-065-1.
  71. Jump up^ Wisneski, Leonard A.; Anderson, Lucy (2009). The Scientific Basis of Integrative Medicine, Second Edition. CRC. ISBN 978-1-4200-8290-6.
  72. Jump up^ Oschman, James L. (2003). Energy medicine in therapeutics and human performance. Elsevier Science. ISBN 0-7506-5400-7.
  73. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Jahnke, R.; Larkey, L.; Rogers, C.; Etnier, J; Lin, F. (2010). "A comprehensive review of health benefits of qigong and tai chi".American Journal of Health Promotion 24 (6): e1–e25. doi:10.4278/ajhp.081013-LIT-248. PMC 3085832. PMID 20594090.
  74. Jump up^ Lee MS, Pittler MH, Guo R, Ernst E (August 2007). "Qigong for hypertension: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". J. Hypertens. 25 (8): 1525–32. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e328092ee18. PMID 17620944.
  75. Jump up^ Lee MS, Pittler MH, Ernst E (November 2009). "Internal qigong for pain conditions: a systematic review". J Pain 10 (11): 1121–1127.e14. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2009.03.009. PMID 19559656.
  76. Jump up^ Lee MS, Pittler MH, Ernst E (November 2007). "External qigong for pain conditions: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". J Pain 8 (11): 827–31. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2007.05.016. PMID 17690012.
  77. Jump up^ Lee MS, Chen KW, Sancier KM, Ernst E (2007). "Qigong for cancer treatment: a systematic review of controlled clinical trials". Acta Oncol 46 (6): 717–22. doi:10.1080/02841860701261584. PMID 17653892.
  78. Jump up^ Chan CL, Wang CW, Ho RT, et al. (June 2012). "A systematic review of the effectiveness of qigong exercise in supportive cancer care".Support Care Cancer 20 (6): 1121–33. doi:10.1007/s00520-011-1378-3. PMC 3342492. PMID 22258414.
  79. Jump up^ Robinson, Bruce H. (2007). Biomedicine: A Textbook for Practitioners of Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine. Blue Poppy Press.ISBN 978-1-891845-38-3.
  80. Jump up^ Palmer, David A. (2007). "Chapter 6. Controversy and Crisis". Qigong fever: body, science, and utopia in China. Columbia University Press. pp. 158–170. ISBN 0-231-14066-5.
  81. Jump up^ Ownby, David (2008). Falun Gong and the future of China. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–186. ISBN 978-0-19-532905-6.
  82. Jump up^ Dong, Paul (2000). China's major mysteries: paranormal phenomena and the unexplained in the People's Republic. San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals. ISBN 978-0-8351-2676-2.
  83. ^ Jump up to:a b Shermer, Michael (2002). The Skeptic encyclopedia of pseudoscience, Volume 2. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-653-9.
  84. ^ Jump up to:a b Wanjek, Christopher (2003). Bad medicine: misconceptions and misuses revealed, from distance healing to vitamin O. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 182–187. ISBN 0-471-43499-X.
  85. Jump up^ Smith, Jonathan C. Pseudoscience and Extraordinary Claims of the Paranormal: A Critical Thinker's Toolkit. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8122-8.
  86. Jump up^ Kurtz, Paul (2001). Skeptical Odysseys: Personal Accounts by the World's Leading Paranormal Inquirers. Prometheus Books.ISBN 978-1-57392-884-7.
  87. Jump up^ Nash, David; Pat Manfredi, Mary; Bozarth, Barbara; Howell, Susan (2001). Connecting with the New Healthcare Consumer: Defining Your Strategy. Jones Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8342-2004-1.
  88. Jump up^ Carroll, Robert P. (2003). The skeptic's dictionary: a collection of strange beliefs, amusing deceptions, and dangerous delusions. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-27242-7.
  89. Jump up^ Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on the Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by the American Public (2005).Complementary and alternative medicine in the United States. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-09270-8.
  90. Jump up^ Dodes, John E. (January / February 1997). "The Mysterious Placebo". Skeptical Inquirer (Amherst, NY: Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) 21 (1). Retrieved 2005-10-20.
  91. Jump up^ Mayr, Ernst (1997). This is biology: the science of the living world. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.ISBN 978-0-674-88469-4.
  92. Jump up^ Armenti, Angelo (1992). The Physics of sports. New York: American Institute of Physics. ISBN 978-0-88318-946-7.
  93. Jump up^ Tuszynski, J. A.; Dixon, J. (2002). Biomedical applications of introductory physics. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-41295-3.
  94. Jump up^ Lin, Zixin (2000). Qigong: Chinese medicine or pseudoscience. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-232-6.
  95. Jump up^ Mainfort, Donald (March 1999). "Sima Nan: Fighting Qigong Pseudoscience in China". Skeptical Inquirer (Amherst, NY: Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) 9 (1). Retrieved 2005-10-20.
  96. Jump up^ Beyerstein, Barry L.; Sampson, Wallace (July / August 1996). "Traditional Medicine and Pseudoscience in China: A Report of the Second CSICOP Delegation (Part 1)". Skeptical Inquirer (Amherst, NY: Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) 20 (4). Retrieved 2005-10-20.
  97. Jump up^ Beyerstein, Barry L.; Sampson, Wallace (September / October 1996). "Traditional Medicine and Pseudoscience in China: A Report of the Second CSICOP Delegation (Part 2)". Skeptical Inquirer (Amherst, NY: Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) 20 (5). Retrieved 2005-10-20.
  98. Jump up^ Mainfort, Donald (July / August 2000). "The New Paranatural Paradigm: Special APS Session Examines Pseudoscience". Skeptical Inquirer (Amherst, NY: Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) 24 (4). Retrieved 2005-10-20.
  99. Jump up^ Miura, Kunio (1989). "The Revival of Qi". In Livia Kohn (ed). Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques. Center For Chinese Studies: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. ISBN 0-89264-085-5.
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